<p>Fort St. Pierre was a colonial French fortified outpost on the Yazoo River in what is now Warren County, Mississippi. Also known as Fort St. Claude and the Yazoo Post, it was established in 1719 and served as the northernmost outpost of French Louisiana. It was destroyed in 1729 by Native Americans and was not rebuilt. Its location, north of Vicksburg on the east bank of the river, was discovered by archaeologists in the 1970s, and was given the Smithsonian trinomial 23-M-5. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2000.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>French Louisiana was established in 1699, with New Orleans founded as a major center in 1718. French explorers of the Yazoo River valley first took place between 1698 and 1706, when French missionaries were active in the area. By then, English traders from the Province of Carolina had already established relations with the Chickasaw people of northern Mississippi, and were making inroads with the Natchez people further south. The missionary activity ceased when one of them was murdered by the Natchez. An expansion of French Louisiana was thwarted by Frances inability to support the colony during the War of the Spanish Succession (aka Queen Annes War in English North America, 1702–1713). The French established Fort St. Pierre in 1719 as a northern outpost between these peoples, as a means to blunt English trading influence and further their own. The fort was a substantial palisaded complex, surrounded by a moat. It was destroyed in a surprise attack on December 11, 1729, by a band of Natchez, whose leadership had become hostile to French incursions on their territory upon the death of a French-friendly chief.</p><br>
<p>The Yazoo Bluffs area, where the fort was located, did not come to significant archaeological attention until the 1970s. James Ford believed that its site would yield useful information for dating other historical Native sites in the region, but did not find the fort. In 1974 a formal survey of the lower Mississippi identified the site, which underwent a major excavation between 1975 and 1977. These excavations exposed portions of the palisade, one of the fort&#39;s bastions, and other features. Unique among known colonial sites, archaeologists also uncovered evidence that the occupants used a wooden shot tower to manufacture lead shot. The comparatively short occupation period of Fort St. Pierre has also allowed more sophisticated distinction among finds at sites such as that of Fort Toulouse, which had a much longer occupation period.</p><br>
<h2>Indigenous Groups at Fort St. Pierre and Pottery</h2><br>
<p>The land around Fort St. Pierre in Vicksburg Mississippi was home to three different native groups, Yazoo, Koroa, Ofogoula, before the French arrived. These groups were friendly with the English and Chickasaw Native tribe, which was contradictory to French interests. Two of these groups, the Yazoo and Koroa were influential in the collapse of Fort St. Pierre. In December 1729, they attacked the fort and killed most of the inhabitants. The third tribe native to this regions, the Ofogoula was not present for the attack. They had relocated to the Natchez region. After the fall of the fort, the Yazoo and Koroa left but continued hostilities towards the French and any indigenous tribe that happened to be fighting with them.</p><br>
<p>Given that these indigenous groups were active on the landscape before and during the French occupation of Fort St. Pierre there is much archaeological evidence pertaining to the Yazoo, Koroa, and Ofogoula. Large amounts of native pottery were found by archaeologists at the site. At Fort St. Pierre, 43% of their archaeological collection is composed of Native ceramic fragments. Those frequently used artifacts, like pottery, tell us what was important to indigenous people of the past and how they lived their lives. Pots and bowls are essentials for cooking, preparing, serving, and storing food. Native women were the primary producers of these clay vessels.</p><br>
<h2>Food and Supplies</h2><br>
<p>Fort Saint Pierre as a French fort received resupply and reinforcement through land. Uses of Naval support or vessels along the Yazoo River were scarce if ever utilized. Primary food and water resources were acquired via the land surrounding the fort. The soldiers stationed would farm the land and their own food and would seek water through the Yazoo. Outsourced supply or trade was then primarily if not always carried out by land. Life at the fort was relatively simple yet boring, which left little to do save keep watch, farm, and tend the land.</p><br>
<h2>Soldiers at the Fort</h2><br>
<p>Not many records of the soldiers’ daily lives have been found. But from what we know and from a couple of journal entries we can conclude a few things soldiers experienced during their time at the fort. It is said that the soldiers would go to the chapel to pray twice a day as a part of their duty. The soldiers were given their own plot of land to plant whatever they pleased which is one way they spent their free time. Other forms of leisure activities would include drawing, writing, reading, or spending time with their comrades. We are informed that daily life at the fort was peaceful and usually happy, but with that comes pure boredom. The soldiers’ time was frequently filled with duties such as military drills and maneuvers which kept them on their toes. One problem the soldiers dealt with was a shortage of food and a drought during one summer. They were able to engage in trading with the native tribes around them which in turn helped them out.</p><br>
<h2>Artifacts from the Archaeological Excavation of the Fort St. Pierre Site in Vicksburg, MS</h2><br>
<p>Featured here: Glass Beads, Pottery and Ceramics, Swivel Guns, Rosary Beads, Musketballs and Lead Shot, Knives, Nails, Buckles, Jetons</p><br>
<h3>Trade: Glass Beads</h3><br>
<p>Drawn beads, also known as cane beads, seed beads, or tube beads, first came to be made in ancient Rome and the technique was then employed in India, Italy, France, and Northwestern Europe. Glass beads were then shipped to North America as a trade item. The specific bead types found at Fort St. Pierre are most likely directly from Venice, Italy. The Venetians were very skilled craftsmen, and they used the same bead making process to create drawn beads as the Romans. The Venetians brought their designs to the Netherlands. Beads were also produced in Paris and London. In addition, beads were traded and shipped to France, which were passed on to explorers, who brought them to the Americas in the early 16th century. When European explorers brought the beads with them, the natives living in the Americas quickly incorporated items like these drawn beads into their own trade and decoration practices. This is how the beads made their way to the fort in Mississippi.</p><br>
<h3>Pottery and Ceramics</h3><br>
<p>There are several pottery and ceramic fragments on the site of Fort St. Pierre, many of them being pieces of French Faience. Faience is a form of tin-glazed earthenware that was inspired by imported Chinese porcelain. At the time Faience was considered fairly valuable, but many of the pieces of faience found at Fort St. Pierre are considered to be rejects and misproductions that were sold cheaply to colonists and settlers. Much of the earthenware has been shattered into pieces, possibly due to the destruction of the fort in 1729. Most of the faience in the fort was used for daily life, being used for drinking cups and plates.</p><br>
<h3>Swivel Guns</h3><br>
<p>Swivel guns are smaller naval cannons which can are placed upon a rotating swivel to fire. The presence of swivel guns at Fort Saint Pierre is likely but unknown. The only artifacts unearthed were ammunition which was too large for rifles of the time, and too small for cannons. There is a possibility of the use of wall guns, but this can be discounted as there were no remnants of wall guns at the site. While wall guns stood upon long wooden mounts or rest upon a wall to fire, a swivel gun often utilized two operators and was situated on a rotating swivel. The other artifact discovered is an iron casting which also resembles the time periods iron lanterns. However both of these artifacts were discovered along the river side of the fort and were in relative close distance. Proving further that swivel guns may have been present. While many items are taken into account for determining the use of swivel guns, it is likely that they were present and either removed by a raiding enemy or removed by French forces prior to the forts demise.</p><br>
<h3>Rosary Beads</h3><br>
<p>It is possible that some of the beads recovered from the remains of the Fort could have been part of a rosary, though they are most likely glass beads intended as items of trade. An archaeological signal of glass rosary beads is when they are recovered linked together by metal loops. Rosary artifacts such as these are recovered at various colonial sites, leading again to the question of where are the rosaries at Fort St. Pierre? If they existed, these items were likely looted, as the looting of religious items from the Jesuit priest at the fort was recorded by French witnesses. Later, Catholic officials paid ransoms to several Native groups to regain the church items, but rosaries were not listed among the returned items.</p><br>
<h3>Musketballs and Lead Shot</h3><br>
<p>Musketballs were recovered at Fort St. Pierre inside structures, palisades, trenches, and the moat. These spherical projectiles made of iron or lead were used both as trade items and as weapons in combat. Musketballs are typically the most common items found at frontier sites, though only a small quantity was found at Fort St. Pierre. The most logical explanation as to their absence is looting after the 1729 attack.</p><br>
<p>Shot sizes ranged from smaller bird and buck shot used for hunting birds and game to large musketballs used for trading and warfare. Extra room had to be left between the musketball and the inside of the gun barrel to allow for fouling, or the build-up of black powder after each shot.</p><br>
<p>The presence of a lead shot drop area indicates French soldiers at Fort St. Pierre made their own small shot. They may have made musketballs, too, since musketballs and firearms were so valuable to life in the colonies. In general, lead shot and powder were never scarcities for French colonists. Import of these goods to Louisiane increased from 1.25 tons of lead balls in 1704 to 10 tons in 1733. Archaeologists suggest shot shipped to the colonies was not sorted according to size. Soldiers therefore had to estimate which size shot would work in their barrels, and they sometimes used knives or their own teeth to correct ill-fitting balls.</p><br>
<h3>Knives</h3><br>
<p>Knives, although very basic tools, were essential to the survival of the French Colonists in the New World. This was because knives played a large role in their daily lives, aiding them with hunting, cooking, and trade. Knives were most valuable to the French Colonists when used as trading materials. When first arriving in the new world it was important that the French created a good relationship with the natives of that area. If they did not, it was likely that they would not survive. Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville, a French explorer and founder of the colony La Louisiane, understood the importance of maintaining good relations with Indians. As soon as he reached American shores, he attempted to make preliminary contact with the indigenous population in order to facilitate land reconnaissance. When he first made contact, he left the natives with two axes, four knives, and some vermilion to show his good intentions toward two Indians who had been observing them since their arrival. This was the start of a gift system that resulted in the natives becoming dependent on Europeans. Since the natives could not reproduce these knives because they did not know how to create iron and steel tools, they had to be replaced. This opened up trade between the French and the natives. Knives were among the most popular and widespread items of trade in North America. The first known European artifact given to an Indian in Louisiana was a knife presented to a chief of the Natchez by Henri Tonti on March 26, 1682. Clasp knives and case knives were the most common knives in the trade network. These were common because their simple design made them easy to mass-produce. Case knives were often boxed up into cases and shipped over to North America. This allowed the French to trade many knives all at once.</p><br>
<h3>Nails</h3><br>
<p>One of the most common artifacts found in the French colonial site of Fort St. Pierre are hand wrought nails. Different types of nails were found at this site with the most common being the Rose Head nail, the “L” Head, “T” Head, as well as tacks. Hand-wrought nails have different uses and are applied in different scenarios for distinctive materials. For example, the Rose Head was more commonly used for practical uses while the “L” Head nail was used for furniture. By studying these artifacts, we can better understand the different uses for nails in this French Colonial space.</p><br>
<h3>Buckles</h3><br>
<p>Buckles are a common find at Fort St. Pierre and forts alike. Soldiers at the fort used these buckles for many different uses. These include keeping articles of clothing sturdy, tightening straps and harnesses (on both weapons and their rucksacks), and they were used as fashionable accessories on their uniforms. Because of the many uses, buckles during Fort St. Pierre&#39;s lifetime ranged greatly in shapes and sizes. Some were larger and more extravagant while others were less flashy and were used more predominantly for their use rather than accessories. Since the fort is a soldier base most of the buckles are plain with minimum designs engraved on them because their usefulness was more valued than their beauty.Baumgarten, Linda. Eighteenth-Century Clothing at Williamsburg. Colonial</p><br>
<p>Williamsburg Foundation, 1986. Book.Brain, Jeffrey P. Tunica Treasure. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and</p><br>
<p>Ethnology, Harvard University, 1979. Book.Deagan, Kathleen A. Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies of Florida and the</p><br>
<p>Caribbean, 1500-1800. Vol. 2, Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002. Book.Gums, Bonnie L., Waselkov, Gregory A.Archaeology at La Pointe-Krebs</p><br>
<p>Plantation in Old Spanish Fort Park (22JA526), Pascagoula, Jackson</p><br>
<p>County, Mississippi. Archaeological Report 35. Mississippi Department of</p><br>
<p>Archives and History, 2015. Book.Koda, Harold, et al. Dangerous Liaisons: Fashion and Furniture in the</p><br>
<p>Eighteenth Century. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007. Book.Lester, Katherine Morris., et al. Accessories of Dress: an Illustrated</p><br>
<p>Encyclopedia. Dover Publications, 2004. Book.Malischke, LisaMarie. Heterogeneity of Early French and Native Forts,</p><br>
<p>Settlements, and Villages: a Comparison to Fort St. Pierre (1719-1729) in</p><br>
<p>French Colonial Louisiane. University of Alabama Libraries, 2015. PDF.Stone, Lyle M. Fort Michilimackinac, 1715-1781: an Archaeological Perspective</p><br>
<p>on the Revolutionary Frontier. Mich., 1974. Book.</p><br>
<h3>Muskets</h3><br>
<p>The 1716 and 1729-1734 model marine muskets were common among the French marines and were likely carried by the men of Fort St. Pierre. While the soldiers were likely the only ones who carried firearms in the fort, similar weaponry was in common use in colonial North America in the 18th century. For example, a smoothbore, flintlock musket hunting gun, called the Fusil de chasse was produced in Tulle, France. Local militiamen and Native groups used these muskets, as they were lightweight and well built. When excavation took place, it was expected that there would be a lot of rifles in the fort, however in comparison to most other forts there were few muskets to be found. It is possible that the cause for the lack of muskets to be found is due to the fort being looted and the remnants of the muskets could be found in locations surrounding Fort St. Pierre.Hamilton, T. M., and Donald Baird. Colonial Frontier Guns.</p><br>
<p>Pioneer Press, 1987.Chartrand, ReneÌ. The French Soldier in Colonial America.</p><br>
<p>Vol. 18, Museum Restoration Service, 1984.Bruseth, James E., et al. La Belle: the Archaeology of a Seventeenth-Century</p><br>
<p>Ship of New World Colonization. Texas A&M University Press, 2017.Hamilton, T. M. Firearms on the Frontier: Guns at Fort Michilimackinac,</p><br>
<p>1715-1781. Vol. 5, Mackinac Island State Park Commission, 1976.</p><br>
<h3>Jetons</h3><br>
<p>Among the artifacts found in the excavation were jetons, a coin typically made of copper or other less valuable material of the time. These jetons, though heavily deteriorated, were able to give insight into the possible daily lives of the soldiers stationed at the fort while it was controlled by the French. Jetons often had little to no monetary value outside of French colonial holdings; largely used as a gaming piece or for betting—similar to a modern poker chip. Interestingly, this also could have shown that there was possible interaction between soldiers and natives in the area, as it has been documented that the natives also gambled in similar ways to the soldiers—horse races, card games, etc.</p><br>
<h2>Fort&#39;s Destruction</h2><br>
<p>Following the fire and destruction of Fort St. Pierre in 1729 at the hand of the native people, the fort was abandoned and never rebuilt; a time lasting over 100 years. However, the land did see use again after it was utilized for a Civil War camp for an 18-month stretch between 1862 and 1863, though it is possible that some of the artifacts found during the excavation of the site were from this period.</p><br>
<p>According to Ian W. Brown and Bill Wright, some of the artifacts from the site likely originate from the 1862-1863 period. Among these artifacts are a light turquoise glass container, multiple pieces of leather likely a part of the heel of a shoe, a brass button with an eagle, and a brass gun thumb plate stamped with die.</p><br>
<p>The Port Gibson Battlefield is the site near Port Gibson, Mississippi where the 1863 Battle of Port Gibson was fought during the American Civil War. The battlefield covers about 3,400 acre of land west of the city, astride Rodney Road, where Union Army forces were establishing a beachhead after crossing the Mississippi River in a bid to take the Confederate fortress of Vicksburg. The Union victory secured that beachhead and paved the way for the eventual fall of Vicksburg. A 2,080 acre area surrounding part of the site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, and a larger area was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2005. In 2009, the battlefield was designated by the Civil War Preservation Trust as one of its Top 10 most endangered Civil War battlefields. In 2011, the Civil War Preservation Trust was renamed the Civil War Trust, which in 2018 became a division of the American Battlefield Trust. The Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved 644 acres of the Port Gibson battlefield.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The battlefield area is about 4 mi west of Port Gibson. The terrain is a tangle of ravines and terraces, caused by the soil type (sedimentary loess) and a history of intensive agricultural use up to the 20th century. The area is now largely wooded, with a scattering of non-historic houses and other buildings, mainly along Rodney Road which roughly bisects the battlefield. The only surviving historic structure is the Shaifer plantation house, which is where the battle began. At the time of the battle in 1863, the terraces of the area would have been in agriculture, with the ravines filled with dense jungle-like growth.</p><br>
<p>After a number of failed attempts to reach Vicksburg from the north and northeast, Union General Ulysses S. Grant decided to march his army down the west side of the Mississippi River, past Vicksburg, and locate a crossing area from which he could reach the city from the south. A crossing point at Bruinsburg, just south of the mouth of Bayou Pierre, was described as suitable for the armys use, and on April 30, 1863 Grant began what was then one of the largest amphibious military operations in United States history. The initial landing was unopposed, and Grant moved quickly to secure the beachhead, moving troops up the road toward Port Gibson. These met with Confederate defenders under the command of General John S. Bowen at the Shaifer plantation on May 1, with the Union forces victorious in a daylong bloody battle. The victory was key in setting the foundation for Grants successful conclusion to the Vicksburg Campaign.</p><br>
<p>The surviving Shaifer plantation house is now owned by the state.</p><br>
<p>Camp Disappointment is the northernmost campsite of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, on its return trip from the Pacific Northwest. The site is on private land within the Blackfeet Indian Reservation in Glacier County, Montana. It is located along the south bank of Cut Bank Creek and 12 mi northeast of Browning, Montana. Glacier National Park can be seen in the distance.</p><br>
<p>The campsite was used by a detachment of the expedition from July 22–26, 1806. Captain Meriwether Lewis, George Drouillard, the two Fields brothers&mdash;Joseph and Reubin&mdash, possibly five more men, along with six horses. The party was exploring the Marias River in an attempt to show that the Missouri River watershed extended to the 50th parallel north in order to claim more land for the United States under the Louisiana Purchase. However, they discovered that the watershed does not extend to the 50th parallel and consequently named their campsite Camp Disappointment. Lewis called the site which is shaded by cottonwood trees a "beautiful and extensive bottom". Since it was overcast and damp throughout their stay the expedition could not make any astronomical observations. This part of the expedition split off from William Clark&#39;s group at the Great Falls of the Missouri on July 16.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of July 26, 1806 they left the camp to head back and later that day met a party of eight Blackfeet Indians, the first members of that tribe that the expedition had encountered. The Blackfeet seemed friendly towards them, and the two parties agreed to set up and share a camp for the night. Over the course of the evening, the Blackfeet became aware that the expedition party had been trading with as well as brokering peace with any and all tribes that theyd encountered, including many of the Blackfeets enemies and rivals. Among those goods traded were firearms, which especially aggravated the Blackfeet, as guns were then considered a relatively scarce and extremely valuable military commodity for the tribes of the area, and one which the Blackfeet had been trying to monopolize for themselves up until that point.</p><br>
<p>As a result, after both parties had apparently retired for the night, the Blackfeet men attempted to steal the expedition members&#39; various guns while they slept. One of the party members awoke during the attempted burglary, thereby alerting the others, and the situation rapidly escalated into a violent conflict between the two groups. During the fight, two of the Blackfeet were shot and killed by two of the Lewis party members, in what the latter considered acts of deeply regrettable, yet necessary self-defense. Because the conflict occurred near the Two Medicine River, it subsequently became known as the Two Medicine Fight, and would be the only time throughout the entire Lewis and Clark Expedition that an encounter with Native Americans resulted in violence on either side.</p><br>
<p>In 1925 the Great Northern Railway erected a monument similar to the Washington Monument and a sign 4 mi south of the campsite reached on July 23, 1806. This is near mile marker 233 and several hundred yards north of USA Route 2. Access to the campsite is only via a primitive road just west of this marker. It was declared both a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<p>The site is relatively unchanged since the expedition camped here. Though on private property, one can visit with an admission fee and a 4-wheel drive vehicle. The site includes an ancient Indian buffalo jump. From the National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form:</p><br>
<p>"At the campsite today wide lowland meadows are watered by the Cut Bank Creek and cottonwood trees line its banks. From the high wind-swept plains that rise above the site on the north and south you can trace the route of the creek into the foot of the mountains in the distance by the dark green foliage of the trees which mark its course.</p><br>
<p>"Immediately east of the meadow delineated as the probable campsite, and protecting the area from the strong winds, is a large stone cliff -- approximately 300 feet high and 600 feet wide -- of craggy grey stone. This very sheer precipice was an Indian buffalo jump, or pishkin, one of many in Montana, but one in particularly good condition, probably because of its isolated location. The creek which washes directly by the foot of the cliff has exposed many bones of the animals killed during the Indian-instigated buffalo stampedes over the cliff, which provided the people with large supplies of food and hides in the era before the Indians had horses for hunting."</p><br>
<p>The Great Falls Portage is the route taken by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805 to portage around the Great Falls of the Missouri River during the outbound portion of the expedition. The 18 mi portage took 31 days. Two portions of the route, which have largely escaped development, are part of a National Historic Landmark District, designated in 1966 to commemorate this achievement.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The 1804–1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition was the first major incursion of English-speaking white men into the northwestern American plains. Ascending the Missouri River, the party reached the Great Falls area on June 13, 1805. Having been forewarned of the falls&#39; existence by the Hidatsa with whom they had overwintered, an advance team led by Meriwether Lewis scouted the extent of the falls, which then consisted of a series of cascades extending beyond what is now the city of Great Falls. Many of these have since been dammed to produce hydroelectric power, and some are hemmed in by the city.</p><br>
<p>The route selected by Clark began with an ascent of over 1 mi up what is now called Belt Creek, about 1 mile below present-day Morony Dam. From there, the expedition boats were carried overland on crude wagons constructed by the team overland to a site near the White Bear Islands, south of the modern city. The expedition&#39;s largest boat, a pirogue, was left at Belt Creek. The team celebrated Independence Day at the upper camp, and departed upstream on July 15, having constructed two additional canoes to compensate for the loss of the boat.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarked areas</h2><br>
<p>Two separate portions of the expedition portage route form part of the National Historic Landmark District designated in 1966. At the lower end of the portage, the area on the east bank of the river where the party made camp (approximately 47&deg;36&prime;15.3&Prime;N latitude, 111&deg;02&prime;43.7&Prime;W longitude) is included, as is the portage route up Belt Creek, continuing for about 8 mi across what are now mainly agricultural fields. Also included in this section is Sulphur Spring, located above the west bank of the river opposite the mouth of Belt Creek. Water from this source, reputed to have curative powers, was used to treat Sacagawea, who had fallen seriously ill at the camp. This entire area is privately owned, and is difficult to access by land.</p><br>
<p>The other element of the portage that is landmarked is the last 2.5 mi of the route, extending from Mount Olivet Cemetery to the White Bear Islands area (approximately 47&deg;27&prime;34.7&Prime;N latitude, 111&deg;17&prime;57.4&Prime;W longitude). At the time of the expedition there were three White Bear Islands; one has since become attached to the western shore by silting action, and the actual camp site was probably some way east of the current eastern bank. The land in this area is also privately owned but is crossed by public roads.</p><br>
<p>In May 2008 the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed the site on their list of America&#39;s Most Endangered Places due to a proposed coal-fired power plant in the vicinity.</p><br>
<p>The Northeast Entrance Station to Yellowstone National Park, in Park County, Montana, is a rustic log building designed by the National Park Service Branch of Plans and Design under the direction of Thomas Chalmers Vint and built in 1935. The entrance station straddles USA Route 212  west of Silver Gate. A combined ranger station and residence is located nearby. All buildings were constructed by George Larkin of Gardiner, Montana.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Northeast Entrance Station spans the center of the road into the park from Silver Gate. A central block housing the office and two checking windows is flanked by smaller blocks, each housing a checking window and joined to the main block by a long gabled roof that spans the ensemble. Each block is marked by a cross gable proportional to the block&#39;s size. The walls are lodgepole pine logs cut within the park with saddle-jointed corner, randomly beveled. Log poles support the shingled roof. The entrance station rests on a local stone foundation. A stone chimney for the heating stove projects above the central block. Earth floors have been replaced with concrete slabs.</p><br>
<p>The ranger residence is a matching log building, rectangular in plan with a small extension housing an office. The residence is one story with seven rooms. Unusually for its time it was insulated during construction to try to prevent ice from building up on the roof.</p><br>
<h2>Influence</h2><br>
<p>The Northeast Entrance Station was featured in a planbook published by the National Park Service as an example of appropriate design for national and state park structures. Park and Recreational Structures was greatly influential in the design of park facilities in North America in the late 1930s, when many parks were being developed as job-creation projects. The design of the entrance station may itself have been influenced by the 1932 decision of the small community of Silver Gate, just beyond the entrance station, to build entirely in log construction.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designation</h2><br>
<p>As a pristine example of its type, and being an ambitious one for its time, it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987, and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places at the same time.</p><br>
<p>The Burton K. Wheeler House is a historic house at 1232 East 2nd Street in Butte, Montana, United States. Built about 1923, this modest working-class house was for many years the home of politician Burton K. Wheeler , a radical Democrat who in 1924 ran for United States Vice President on the Progressive Party ticket with Robert La Follette Sr. In the 1930s he opposed the New Deal and what he viewed as efforts to bring the United States into World War II. His house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Burton K. Wheeler House stands in a densely built residential area east of downtown Butte that was traditionally a working-class neighborhood populated by mine workers. The house is separated from its neighbors by concrete paths, and is set back a short way from the sidewalk on the street. The house is stories in height, with the first story built out of brick, and the upper half-story elements framed in wood and covered in wooden shingles. The front has a three-part window, with a larger central sash flanked by smaller sashes. To its left a recessed porch, its corner supported by a sloping square post with shingled exterior. The gable above the main window group has a deep eave supported by Craftsman brackets, and shows a band of three equal-sized sash windows.</p><br>
<p>The house was apparently built not long before its purchase in 1908 by Burton K. Wheeler. Wheeler lived here until 1923, when his rise in national politics brought him to Washington, D.C., as a United States senator. Although Wheeler&#39;s law practice had quickly made it possible for him to move to a more affluent area, he categorically refused, claiming that he enjoyed living among the working classes in the neighborhood, and that it was "worth extra votes every time I ran for office".</p><br>
<p>Wheeler became nationally prominent by investigating prosecutors who refused to go after individuals implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal. He bolted the Democratic Party to run with La Follette on the Progressive Partys presidential ticket; this ticket gained more votes than any other third-party campaign until 1968. In the 1930s he opposed Franklin Delano Roosevelts New Deal domestic policies, and what he viewed were Roosevelt&#39;s foreign policies that would draw the country into what became World War II. His opposition to entry into the war cost him reelection in 1946.</p><br>
<p>Fresno Municipal Sanitary Landfill in Fresno, California, was the first modern landfill in the USA, pioneering the use of trenching, compacting, and daily burial to combat rodent and debris problems.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction and operation</h3><br>
<p>Fresno, like other growing cities, sought a suitable long-term solution to the disposal of municipal solid waste in the 1930s. Jean Vincenz, a civil engineer by training, became Fresno commissioner of public works, city engineer, and manager of utilities in 1931. Vincenz recommended that the city not renew its waste disposal contract with the Fresno Disposal Company, which operated an incinerator at the time. Rather, the city conducted an experiment in the operation of a "sanitary" landfill near its water treatment plant, in which a trench was dug, filled with waste, and then covered with fill dug from an adjacent trench, which would be the next area filled. Vincenz emphasized the importance of compacting the fill, saying that without compaction, the waste would attract rats. The demonstration site opened in 1934, and was judged a success.</p><br>
<p>The present site was acquired by the city in 1937, opened the same year and began accepting waste. In 1945, the landfill expanded south of Annadale Avenue.</p><br>
<p>During its years of operation, the city filled an average of 4.3 acre per year with about 24,000 tons of waste.</p><br>
<h3>Closure and cleanup</h3><br>
<p>The EPA&#39;s Superfund program began in 1980 and received a notification from the Fresno Solid Waste Management Division regarding the landfill. In May 1981, the Superfund program evaluated the landfill and the city began the process of closing it. The landfill received its last waste on July 1, 1987.</p><br>
<p>In 1983, the California Department of Health Services conducted tests which found that the site contained methane and vinyl chloride gases that were penetrating into the areas around the landfill. These tests also concluded that contaminants were being found in private ground-water wells around the landfill.</p><br>
<p>On June 24, 1988, the site was officially proposed as a Superfund site and was finalized on the program&#39;s National Priorities List (NPL) on October 10, 1989. The city agreed to begin investigations into monitoring and cleaning up the hazardous aspects of the site. Remediation measures such as landfill cover, landfill gas control, and surface water management systems were constructed between July 1999 and June 2000. A groundwater treatment plant was completed in September 2001.</p><br>
<p>Some remediated city land adjacent to the landfill has been turned into a baseball, softball, and soccer complex with a playground and picnic tables. It was opened in 2001, named the "Regional Sports Complex" and operated as a Fresno city park.</p><br>
<h3>Landmark status and controversy</h3><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark on August 27, 2001. The announcement that a landfill would be designated as a National Landmark was panned in the media and used as an opportunity by some to disparage the environmental policies of George W. Bush, despite the nomination process for this beginning during the previous administration. The Interior Department struggled to deal with the controversy and paused the designation pending further inquiry. It was revealed that the Park Service&#39;s advisory board had voted 10–1 to place the landfill on the landmark list.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The former Fresno Municipal Sanitary Landfill is located about 3 mi from downtown Fresno, on 140 acre of land at the southwest corner of South West Avenue and West Jensen Avenue. The landfill is a basically rectangular mound, about 4,200 ft long and 1,250 ft wide. It rises to a height about 60 ft above the surrounding grade, its sides at a varying but typically steep pitch. It is covered with grass. The landfill has no lining.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>According to historian Martin Melosi, the site was "the first landfill to employ the trench method of disposal and the first to utilize compaction." The design became a model for other landfills around the country, and was the accepted best form of municipal disposal in the 1950s and 1960s. The 1970s brought criticism of the method and new disposal options were considered.</p><br>
<p>For his contribution to this advancement, Jean Vincenz was named assistant chief in the Army Corps of Engineers, operating out of headquarters in Washington, DC. Vincenz was later honored, being named president of the American Public Works Association for his accomplishments.</p><br>
<p>St. Andrews Episcopal Church, also known as St. Andrews Church is a historic church building on County Highway 12 in Prairieville, Alabama. Built by slaves in 1853, it is a remarkably well-preserved example of Carpenter Gothic architecture, its design apparently taken from a book by Richard Upjohn. St. Andrew&#39;s was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 7, 1973, Public access is allowed to this National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>St. Andrew&#39;s Episcopal Church stands on 3 acre of land on the south side of County Highway 12 in the village of Prairieville. It is a single-story frame structure, basically rectangular in plan with two extensions, with a steeply pitched gabled roof. Its exterior is finished in vertical board siding, and most of its windows have pointed-arch tops, both characteristic elements of the Carpenter Gothic. The exterior is embellished by the regular placement of buttress-like projections. The main block of the church houses the nave, with an entry vestibule projecting from one side, and the vestry chamber extending from one of the ends. The entry door has large double doors, fastened by hand-wrought iron strap hinges. The interior of the church is finished in wood, to which a tobacco stain has been applied.</p><br>
<p>The church was built in 1853 by enslaved laborers of church members, under the direction of enslaved master carpenters from Henry Augustine Tayloes nearby Gallion plantation, who would later form the community of Freetown. Tayloe served as Secretary of the Alabama Diocesan Episcopal Convention, and had been appointed to canvass the state to build up a Bishops Fund. The church appears to have been built from a design in the book Rural Architecture by architect Richard Upjohn.</p><br>
<p>The church congregation was founded in 1834, and this was its first church. It was formally consecrated in 1858, and drew parishioners, both free and slave, from surrounding counties. The congregation declined after the American Civil War led to a decline in population. The building continues to be maintained by the Episcopal Diocese of Alabama, with occasional services.</p><br>
<p>In 2023 restoraton work at the church was undertaken by Swindal Construction, LLC following an inspection by Brian Booker, AIA, of Ellis Architects. The stained-glass windows above the altar were restored by Pearl River Glass Studio in Jackson, Mississippi.</p><br>
<p>St Andrews Church 02.jpgView from the east in 2008</p><br>
<p>St Andrews Church 04.jpgNational Historic Landmark plaque</p><br>
<p>St.AndrewsChurch(1936).jpgSt. Andrews in 1936</p><br>
<p>Henry Augustine Tayloe I.jpgHenry Augustine Tayloe, photograph taken by RW Harrison, Selma, AL</p><br>
<p>The Grand Opera House, also known as The Grand or Masonic Hall and Grand Theater, is a 1,208-seat theater for the performing arts in Wilmington, Delaware, United States. The four-story building was built in 1871 by the Delaware Grand Lodge of Masons to serve as a Masonic Temple and auditorium. The construction cost was $100,000. It was designed in Second Empire style by Baltimore architect Thomas Dixon and incorporates symbolism from Freemasonry into the cast-iron facade. Its central pediment contains an Eye of Providence.</p><br>
<p>Historically, the Grand hosted a variety of operas, symphonies, Victorian melodramas, minstrel shows, burlesque, vaudeville, and other exhibitions, including performers such as Ethel Barrymore, "Buffalo Bill" Cody and "Texas Jack" Omohundro, and John Philip Sousa. For most of the twentieth century the Grand was operated exclusively as a movie theater, run by Warner Brothers from 1930 and eventually closing in 1967. It was reopened four years later and returned to programming emphasizing classical music, partnering with the Delaware Symphony Orchestra, OperaDelaware, and the First State Ballet Theatre.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 with assertions of both architectural and historical significance. It was argued it is "one of the finest remaining examples of 19th century cast iron architecture in America" and that it has important association with events and persons in Delaware&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, management was turned over to a non-profit organization and the building underwent extensive restoration, which was completed in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Begun in 1882, Camp Wild Air was the first permanent camp on Upper Saint Regis Lake, in the town of Brighton, Franklin County in New York&#39;s Adirondacks. The camp was built by New York Herald Tribune publisher Whitelaw Reid on a 29 acre peninsula accessible only by water. It presently consists of 12 buildings, 10 of which were built before 1931.</p><br>
<p>The camp was originally designed by Reids niece, Ella Spencer Reid, who also named the camp. It was begun on land that was leased; Mildred Phelps Stokes Hooker (1881–1970), daughter of Anson Phelps Stokes, in her Camp Chronicles, sniffs that "she seems to have built before she owned." The land was purchased by the Reids in 1890. The main lodge of unpeeled cedar logs, called the Living Room, was designed by McKim, Mead and White, and is the only known example of a rustic design from that firm. It was added in 1917 after a fire damaged earlier structures; it features sitting and billiard rooms overlooking the lake. The "Bishops Palace", a small log octagon set at the water&#39;s edge with a massive fireplace and chimney, was named for its occasional use by Episcopalian clerics; there are two other, similar buildings at the camp, all designed by William Rutherford Mead. There is also a guest cottage with eight bedrooms, two boathouses and a recreation hall. The main buildings are connected by stone walkways. Many of the furnishings are original.</p><br>
<p>The camp is still owned by descendants of the original owners.</p><br>
<p>Echo Camp is an Adirondack Great Camp on the tip of Long Point adjacent to Camp Pine Knot on Raquette Lake. It was used as a private girls&#39; camp from the mid-1940s to the mid-1980s. It was sold in 1986, and is now a privately owned summer residence.</p><br>
<p>Built for Connecticut governor Phineas C. Lounsbury in 1883, its design bears the influence of William West Durant. Its main buildings were nearly identical with those of two other nearby camps built in 1880, Camp Fairview, built on Osprey Island by cousin C. W Durant Jr., and The Cedars, built by cousin Frederick Durant on nearby Forked Lake. Neither is still standing, though they are preserved in photographs by Seneca Ray Stoddard and Edward Bierstadt (elder brother of Albert Bierstadt).</p><br>
<p>Like other Durant camps, Echo Camp is built of locally felled logs, with separate buildings for each function. The main lodge consists of a one-floor log hall flanked by twin two-story log towers, giving a villa-like appearance. Interiors are sheathed in polished planks and narrow wainscoting, rooms are lightened by large, half-round clerestory windows, and twig work decorates verandas and eves. Some buildings have applied cedar bark sheathing, still remarkably intact.</p><br>
<p>The camp was included in a multiple property submission for listing on the National Register of Historic Places and was listed in 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Lord & Burnham Building, located at the corner of Main and Astor Streets in Irvington, New York, United States, is a brick building in the Queen Anne architectural style built in the 1880s. In 1999 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and was added as a contributing property to the Irvington Historic District in 2014.</p><br>
<p>From 1870 on it had been home to Lords Horticultural Works, a builder of boilers and conservatories that had relocated to Irvington to better serve the owners of the many Hudson Valley estates who were its main clients. A fire destroyed the original building; it was replaced by the current structure. As Lord & Burnham, it continued its business until 1988. The building currently houses condominium apartments and the villages public library.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<p>The former factory occupies an 0.8 acre lot at the southeast corner of the intersection, across Astor Street from the villages train station. At the west end of Irvingtons downtown, the surrounding buildings on Main and Astor are primarily two-story commercial structures from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. To its south is a parking lot; additional spaces are also located along both sides of Astor to serve commuters. Across the railroad tracks are some other large industrial structures once used by Lord & Burnham, now known as the Bridge Street Properties which have also been redeveloped. The terrain is level towards the Hudson River to the west, and rises sharply to the east, reflecting the bluffs of the river.</p><br>
<h3>Main block and factory wing</h3><br>
<p>Three sections, all of brick laid in common bond, make up the building itself. The main block, originally the company&#39;s offices, is the six-by-six-bay four-story portion at the corner, topped by a mansard roof covered in tin shingles. At the very corner is a tower with pyramidal roof similarly clad. It is complemented by a two-bay gabled pavilion on the north facade and a similar-sized stepped-gabled pavilion on the south at the opposite ends of their respective facades.</p><br>
<p>All fenestration has splayed-brick segmental-arched openings. They are mostly set with 16-over-4 double-hung sash windows; on the southernmost bay of the ground floor there is a double window. Patterned brick beltcourses delineate all three stories. Between the pavilion and tower the roof is pierced by two hipped-roofed dormer windows on either facade. The south and east elevations, away from the street, are randomly set with six-over-six double-hung sash.</p><br>
<p>A sympathetic brick set of steps to what is now the library&#39;s main entrance, with a wheelchair ramp, is at the juncture between the main block and the former factory wing. It extends to the south, thirteen bays long by five wide and three stories high with a gently pitched gabled roof. Its decorative treatment is a corbelled cornice at the roofline. The modern entrance doors are located in a double-width opening repeated above it and in the third and ninth bays to its south. All windows are six-over-six double-hung sash, with some in the randomly filled bays on the south facade overlooking the parking lot. In the center of its east facade, otherwise similarly treated as the west one, is a modern three-by-three-bay full height projecting pavilion with glass facing on the north and south.</p><br>
<h3>Carriage house</h3><br>
<p>From the east facade of the main block a modern hyphen, not considered to be contributing to the building&#39;s historic character, connects it to the former stable/carriage house. It is a three-story brick Queen Anne structure with a gabled metal roof, stepped on the south (rear) elevation. In the gable field it is faced with scalloped wooden shingle and false half-timbering.</p><br>
<p>The original vehicular entrance, on the east side of the stable&#39;s north (front) facade, has been bricked in. A round-arched pedestrian entrance and rectangular window are to the west. In the center of the second story is a projecting oriel window; each of its facets has four-over-four double-hung sash. On the third story is a group of three nine-over-six double-hung sash. The other three elevations have randomly placed windows in their brick. An exposed portion of the basement on the south elevation is concealed by a modern shed.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>Inside, the building has been extensively modified from its original plan both during its days as a factory and afterwards for conversion into apartments and a library. Some original features remain in the main block. Most significant among them is the stairway at the main entrance. It has pine beadboard walls, chamfered newel posts topped by balls and molded railings. The third-floor door has its original window with 27 small glass panes and three large ones amid three wooden panels, topped by a three-light transom.</p><br>
<p>Original beadboard paneling remains on the second story, along with the original window surrounds and their rosette corners. The original wooden trusses are still visible in the factory wing, making it possible to see that its third floor is carries by suspension rods from the roof trusses. The stable has been extensively modified after its original use was discontinued, but it retains its original stair as well and some of its woodwork.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1849 Frederick Lord, a carpenter in the upstate city of Buffalo, began building greenhouses for his customers. It became his full-time business, Lord&#39;s Horticultural Works, by 1856. He moved to Syracuse. In 1869 he took in his son-in-law, William Burnham, as a partner. He had also developed new methods of ventilating his buildings, and this led the company to enter the residential boiler market in 1873. It perfected its original cast iron sectional boiler design five years later and it became one of the top-selling models.</p><br>
<p>Seven years later, in 1876, the firm moved to Irvington, close to its largest group of customers, the wealthy owners of large estates along the Hudson River north of New York City. The company worked from an existing building on the current site until it was destroyed in an 1881 fire. The current complex was built very quickly to replace it; it is not known who the architect is but it is likely that it was Frederick Lord himself. A map of the village from that year suggests that the factory wing may incorporate part of the original building.</p><br>
<p>That year, the firm was also working on an important commission from railroad magnate Jay Gould. He, too, was replacing a burnt building, in his case the conservatories at Lyndhurst, his estate in nearby Tarrytown, today a National Historic Landmark (NHL). Lord built the first iron frame greenhouse in the country, revolutionizing the industry.</p><br>
<p>Records from 1890 show that the company complex included a boiler shop, ironworks, carpentry shop and two lumber sheds. An insurance map says it employed 30 people. Shortly before Lord&#39;s death that year, the company name was changed to Lord & Burnham. In the years afterward it began filling in the Hudson across the tracks and building on it, expanding its facilities by about four acres (4 acre) by 1895.</p><br>
<p>This was the period when Lord & Burnham was the market leader in building greenhouses. In addition to Lyndhurst, the company built the Enid Haupt Conservatory at what is now the New York Botanical Garden, another NHL, and the conservatory at the Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens, listed on the Register today as a contributing property to the Cazenovia Park-South Park System. By 1903 the companys catalog boasted that the Irvington plant was the countrys largest greenhouse production facility. Nine years later it claimed to employ 250 there, including a design staff with 18 engineers. Burnham served as an elected village official for short periods, as did Lord&#39;s son.</p><br>
<p>Greenhouses were always erected at the factory before being disassembled and shipped for quality assurance purposes. The company claimed several other innovations in addition to the iron framing it had developed for Lyndhurst. It opened factories elsewhere in the country by the 1920s, and by 1930 it held nine patents related to greenhouse manufacture.</p><br>
<p>During this period, greenhouse sales began to decline as only the truly wealthy could afford them. Boiler sales displaced greenhouses as the largest source of the company&#39;s profits. By the late 1940s Burnham Boilers had become a separate division headquartered in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, with its casting plant in Zanesville, Ohio. The company itself moved there in 1987; by then just 12 people worked in Irvington. All greenhouse production ended the next year and the factory was closed.</p><br>
<p>The village did not want the building to stay empty for long. Its public library needed more space, and plans were soon finalized to convert 10,000 ft&sup2; of the factory wing into the new library, with 22 residential units upstairs. Architect Stephen Tilly of nearby Dobbs Ferry oversaw the $2.4 million project, which was completed in 2000.</p><br>
<p>The Propulsion and Structural Test Facility, also known as Building 4572 and the Static Test Stand, is a rocket testing facility of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Built in 1957, it was the site where the first single-stage rockets with multiple engines were tested.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Building 4572 is located in the Marshall Space Flight Center&#39;s East Test Area. Its frame is of steel, with a concrete foundation and concrete load frame. It is 175 ft in height, resting on a base that measures 20 x. It is surrounded by support facilities, and is accompanied by Building 4573, a gantry crane with a capacity of 45 tons. The stand can be configured to either support solid rocket booster testing, or liquid-fueled rockets powered by liquid oxygen or kerosene up to 82 ft in height and 22 ft in diameter.</p><br>
<p>This facility was built in 1957 by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and was the primary center responsible for the development of large vehicles and rocket propulsion systems. The Saturn Family of launch vehicles was developed here under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The Saturn V remains the most powerful launch vehicle ever brought to operational status, from a height, weight and payload standpoint. The facility was planned to undergo modifications in the 2010s in anticipation of its use for testing a new generation of rockets.</p><br>
<p>The Redstone Test Stand or Interim Test Stand was used to develop and test fire the Redstone missile, Jupiter-C sounding rocket, Juno I launch vehicle and Mercury-Redstone launch vehicle. It was declared an Alabama Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1979 and a National Historic Landmark in 1985. It is located at NASA&#39;s George C. Marshall Space Flight Center  in Huntsville, Alabama on the Redstone Arsenal, designated Building 4665. The Redstone missile was the first missile to detonate a nuclear weapon. Jupiter-C launched to test components for the Jupiter missile. Juno I put the first American satellite Explorer 1 into orbit. Mercury Redstone carried the first American astronaut Alan Shepard into space. The Redstone earned the name "Old Reliable" because of this facility and the improvements it made possible.</p><br>
<p>The Interim Test Stand was built in 1953 by Dr. Wernher von Braun&#39;s team for a mere out of materials salvaged from the Redstone Arsenal. In 1957 the permanent test facility called the Static Test Tower was finally finished, but the Army decided to continue operations at the Interim Test Stand rather than move. From 1953 to 1961, 362 static rocket tests were conducted there, including 200 that led directly to improvements in the Redstone rocket for the Mercury crewed flight program. Adapted over the years, it never experienced the growth in size and cost that typified test stands in general, remaining a testament to the engineering ingenuity of the rocket pioneers.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Liquid-propellant rocket development has always proceeded in three steps:</p><br>
<p>Engine testing</p><br>
<p>Static rocket testing</p><br>
<p>Test launches</p><br>
<p>First, prototype engines are tested in a Rocket engine test facility, where the most promising designs are refined during a period of extensive testing. After an engine has been proven, the complete rocket is assembled. In this second step, the rocket is anchored to a static test stand. With the rocket held down, engineers run the engine at full power and refine the system. The test launch is third, when the missile is fired into the sky. Wernher von Braun and his team used this process to develop the V-2 or A4 missile in Germany during WWII.</p><br>
<p>Von Braun and members of his team decided to surrender to the United States military to ensure they were not captured by the advancing Soviets or shot by the Nazis to prevent their capture. They came to the United States via Operation Paperclip. The Army first assigned the Germans to teach German missile technology, assist with the launching of captured V-2&#39;s, and continue rocket research as part of the Hermes project at Fort Bliss, Texas and White Sands Proving Grounds</p><br>
<p>On April 15, 1950, the Army consolidated their far-flung guided missile and rocket research and development efforts into the Ordnance Guided Missile Center (OGMC) at Redstone Arsenal. The Army bought the former WWII munitions facility from the Army Chemical Corps. That summer and fall, members of the German rocket team moved from Fort Bliss to Huntsville. They conducted a preliminary study for proposed 500 mi range missiles and began developing one, called Hermes C-1. The study envisioned warhead payloads of 1,500 and, with the first test launch in 20 months. Cold War tensions escalated by the Korean War drove the payload up to a 6,900 lb atomic bomb with a reduced range. The system with its new specifications took the name Redstone, and had to be highly reliable, accurate, and quickly produced, priority 1A. The development program for the Redstone began in earnest on May 1, 1951. Separate from the missile development program, another budget line item was to bear the cost of constructing facilities for research and development at Redstone Arsenal because those facilities could also be used for other projects. However, the construction of facilities was not funded.</p><br>
<h2>Early development, 1952–1955</h2><br>
<p>The first twelve missiles were built at Redstone Arsenal. Assembly of the first Redstone began in the fall of 1952. Engineers needed a propulsion test stand to improve the missile, but they were not allowed to spend research and development funds on constructing facilities even for a cause vital to national security. Rather than wait for funding to go through the two-year Congressional appropriation process, then wait further for construction, Fritz A. Vandersee designed an interim test stand for $25,000, the maximum amount allowed. The large concrete foundation cost nearly all of the money. On this base, welders built a small stand with metal salvaged from around the arsenal. Three railroad tank cars that had been used to transport chemicals at the arsenal during the war were cleaned, modified, and buried 300 ft away to serve as control and observation bunkers. To view the firings, the tanks also contain two periscopes believed to have been from two surplus Army tanks.</p><br>
<p>When workers assembled the first Redstone missile at Redstone Arsenal in spring of 1953, the Redstone Interim Test Stand stood ready. A crane hoisted the missile (without the warhead) onto the stand and placed a frame atop the missile. Cables were attached to the frame to steady the missile. After extensive tests, workers fueled the missile and fired the engine for tests lasting no more than 15 seconds. After several successful test runs, the missile went to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station for the test flight. Launches provided valuable information on the guidance system, but most improvements on the propulsion system came from lessons learned at the Interim Test Stand, where engineers could evaluate the internal workings of the propulsion system while it was firmly anchored to the ground. A total of fourteen tests were performed with the first four missiles.</p><br>
<p>Before congressional appropriation and construction of permanent facilities was completed, the engineers used the information gained during static testing at the Interim Stand to steadily improve the Redstone system. The next eight missiles stood for twenty-two tests. The tower to the left of the missile (shown above right) is the Cold Calibration Unit, built in 1954. It held only the Redstone&#39;s alcohol and liquid oxygen tanks, pumps, valves and flow meters in various configurations. The liquids flowed into another set of tanks and were used to test and calibrate the valves and flow meters to assure that accurate measurements were made during the static fire testing and to assure a proper alcohol to oxygen mixture ratio. Oxygen-rich propellant mixtures had caused most engine explosions in the early years of liquid rocket development.</p><br>
<p>In the original version of the facility, flames were directed in a trench beneath the rocket in two opposite directions. In December 1955, workers installed a new more durable elbow-shaped flame deflector designed by Rocketdyne engineer Carl Kassner. Water injected through small holes in the elbow quickly turned to steam, keeping the flame away from the metal elbow.</p><br>
<h2>Army Ballistic Missile Agency, 1956–1958</h2><br>
<p>The Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) was established on February 1, 1956 to turn the experimental Redstone rocket into an operational weapon and to develop a new Jupiter Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM). The Redstone missile development continued with routine missile qualification tests and several improvements were made to the Interim Test Stand. A load cell was added to directly measure the thrust of the missile. A cutoff system was added to detect rough combustion in the engine and automatically stop tests. This system prevented engine damage while engineers solved the problem. The first Redstone built by Chrysler was tested at the Interim Stand. Chrysler built thirty-eight developmental Redstone missiles and all sixty-three tactical Redstones in Detroit. In addition, several of the Redstone missiles were modified to aid the Jupiter missile development program. These longer missiles were called Jupiter-C and test fired on the Interim Stand after it was enlarged and strengthened. A series of tests using propellants chilled to −25 &deg;F established that the Redstone could be deployed in the Arctic.</p><br>
<p>In 1957 the permanent Propulsion and Structural Test Facility was finally completed using the funds appropriated by Congress for the Redstone, but the ABMA decided to continue using the Interim Test Stand for the Redstone. After four years of development, the interim facilities had proven adequate for testing the Redstone and Jupiter-C, and the Army felt that a move to the new facilities would be disruptive to its busy schedule.</p><br>
<p>Dr. von Braun had proposed to Project Orbiter using a Redstone as the main booster for launching artificial satellites on June 25, 1954. The day Sputnik 1 launched, October 4, 1957, von Braun had been showing incoming Defense Secretary Neil McElroy around the Redstone Arsenal. They received the news about Sputnik as they relaxed that afternoon. Von Braun turned to McElroy. "We could have been in orbit a year ago," he said. "We knew they &#91;the Soviets&#93; were going to do it! Vanguard will never make it. We have the hardware on the shelf… We can put up a satellite in 60 days." McElroy was not confirmed until the next week and did not have the power to back their proposal. On November 8, McElroy directed the Army to modify two Jupiter-C missiles and to place a satellite in orbit by March 1958. The first stage was soon test fired. Eighty-four days later, on January 31, 1958, the ABMA launched the first US satellite, Explorer I, into orbit. Following this successful launch, five more of these modified Jupiter-C missiles (subsequently re-designated Juno I) were launched in attempts to place additional Explorer satellites in orbit. During this satellite program, the Department of the Army gathered a great deal of knowledge about space. Explorer I gathered and transmitted data on atmospheric densities and the earth&#39;s oblateness. It is primarily remembered, though, as the discoverer of the Van Allen cosmic radiation belt.</p><br>
<p>Because of its proven reliability and accuracy, the Department of Defense decided to use the Redstone missile in tests to study the effects of nuclear detonations in the upper atmosphere, Operation Hardtack I. After being static-fired at the Interim Stand in January 1958, two missiles were shipped to the Pacific Test Range. In July and August, the missiles became the first missiles ever to detonate atomic warheads.</p><br>
<p>In 1958, Redstone development ended and Chrysler began mass production for deployment. Only a few of these missiles were tested at the Interim Test Stand because the propulsion system had become so reliable.</p><br>
<h2>Mercury-Redstone, 1959–1960</h2><br>
<p>As the space race continued, the civilian space agency, NASA started on October 1, 1958 but the Army kept von Braun and the ABMA for another year and a half. NASAs Project Mercury chose the "Old Reliable" Redstone, with its unmatched launch record, as Americas first crewed launch vehicle. Nevertheless, the Army had to make improvements for crewed missions. The crew at the Interim Test Stand ran over 200 static firings to improve the Redstone propulsion system. In addition, all eight Mercury-Redstone launch vehicles endured a full duration acceptance test at the interim stand. On July 1, 1960, 4,670 people transferred from the ABMA to NASA forming the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).</p><br>
<p>The first test flight, Mercury-Redstone 1, occurred on November 21, 1960. After rising a few inches off the launch pad, electrical cables disconnecting in the wrong order caused the engine to shut down. The launch vehicle sustained minor damage and was returned to MSFC. Static fire testing on the Redstone Test Stand in February 1961 verified that repairs were successful. The second test launch, Mercury-Redstone 1A, was successful on December 19, 1960. On January 31, 1961, a chimpanzee named Ham flew into space on Mercury-Redstone 2. Another test flight, Mercury-Redstone BD, added to evaluate changes, confirmed the system was ready.</p><br>
<p>Alan B. Shepard, Jr. became the first American in space on May 5, 1961. Mercury-Redstone 3 was a suborbital flight to an altitude of 115 miles and a range of 302 miles. This flight demonstrated that man was capable of controlling a space vehicle during periods of weightlessness and high accelerations. The last Mercury-Redstone flight, Mercury-Redstone 4, also a crewed suborbital flight, carried Virgil I. Grissom to a peak altitude of 118 miles and safely landed him 303 miles downrange. The Redstone Test Stand contributed to the success of the first two Americans to fly in space.</p><br>
<h2>Epilogue</h2><br>
<p>The Redstone Test Stand phased out of use in October, 1961. After becoming rundown and littered, the site was restored for the US Bicentennial. A Redstone missile, which US Army Missile Command (MICOM) loaned to NASA, was installed on February 27, 1976. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as being nationally significant on May 13, 1976. Alabama Section, American Society of Civil Engineers declared it an Alabama Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1979.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark on October 3, 1985. The Interim Test Stand is in good condition.</p><br>
<p>Saturn V dynamic test stand, also known as dynamic structural test facility, at the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama is the test stand used for testing of the Saturn V rocket and the Space Shuttle prior to the vehicles first flights. Designated building 4550, Its central bay has maximum dimensions of 74 x, and it is topped by a derrick capable of moving 200-ton objects in a 70 ft radius. An elevator provides access to 15 levels in the structure, and a cable tunnel connects the building to control facilities in the space centers East Test Area.</p><br>
<p>NASA built the test stand in 1964 to conduct mechanical and vibrational tests on the fully assembled Saturn V rocket. Major problems capable of causing failure of the vehicle were discovered and corrected here. The stand was used to test how spacecraft behaved when put under vibrating and bending stresses, and to test the connections between major stages of the craft.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1985 for its role in the Saturn V program.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the Saturn V dynamic test vehicle, designated SA-500D, two Space Shuttle test vehicles, Pathfinder and Enterprise, were also tested in this facility.</p><br>
<p>Space Shuttle Pathfinder OV-098 original configuration.jpgThe Space Shuttle Orbiter simulator is hoisted into the Saturn V dynamic test stand in 1977</p><br>
<p>Dynamic Structural Test Facility.jpgThe Shuttle Enterprise is loaded into the Saturn V dynamic test stand for a shake test, c. 1978</p><br>
<p>Swayne Hall is the oldest building on the campus of Talladega College in Talladega, Talladega County, Alabama, United States. It was built in 1857 by slaves for use by a Baptist mens college. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1974 for Talladega Colleges role as one of the few historically black colleges and universities to maintain a liberal arts focus. It was the only liberal arts college open to black Americans in Alabama for many years.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Swayne Hall occupies a central position on the campus of Talladega College, set north of West Brattle Street and east of Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard. It is a three-story masonry structure, built out of brick and covered by a gabled roof. Its main facade is dominated by a full-height projecting portico, with four fluted Doric columns supporting an entablature and pedimented gable. There are cast-iron balconies on the second and third floors.</p><br>
<p>The building was constructed in 1857 for a Baptist men&#39;s college, in part by the use of slave labor provided by the subscribers who underwrote its construction. It was acquired by the American Missionary Association in 1867 when it founded Talladega College. The building is named for General Wager Swayne, a Union Army general during the American Civil War who also served as the appointed military Governor of Alabama during the early days of Reconstruction, serving from 1867 to 1868.</p><br>
<p>Talladega College is one of a small number of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) that resisted trends of the late 19th and early 20th century to focus the education of African Americans on vocations, and maintained a focus on the liberal arts. For many years it was the only school in Alabama at which African Americans could get an undergraduate education, and was one of the most successful HBCUs at sending its students on to graduate-level programs.</p><br>
<p>The William Lowndes Yancey Law Office is located at the corner of Washington and Perry Streets in Montgomery, Alabama. It served as the law offices for one of the Souths leading advocates of secession from the United States, William Lowndes Yancey, from 1846 until his death in 1863. He joined with John A. Elmore to form a legal firm after his resignation from Congress on September 1, 1846. Yancey wrote Alabamas Ordinance of Secession after the election of Abraham Lincoln and subsequently served as the Confederacy&#39;s Commissioner to England and France.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated historic due to its being the Post Office of the Confederate States of America as shown by the plaque outside the building, not due to Yancey&#39;s use as an office.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 and also declared a National Historic Landmark on November 7, 1973. The building&#39;s interior included the historic floor plan and other decorative details when it was declared a landmark. The late 1970s brought redevelopment of the site and the building was altered, this caused substantial losses to enough of the historic elements that the landmark designation was withdrawn on March 5, 1986. The building remains on the National Register of Historic Places, however.</p><br>
<p>As a lawyer, populist legislator, firebrand orator, and party leader, William Lowndes Yancey was an important figure in sectional politics in the leadup to the Civil War. As one of the leading Southern Fire-Eaters, he gained national influence as an aggressive advocate of Slavery and States&#39; Rights and exacerbated sectional differences that led to the secession of the Southern states from the Union. He had his law office in this building from 1846 until his death in 1863. Through successive modernizations and restorations in the 1970s and 1980s, the building lost much of the historic integrity for which it was originally designated a landmark, leading to the withdrawal of its designation. It was, however, retained on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Redeemer is a historic Episcopal church located at 123 Third Street North in Cannon Falls in the USA state of Minnesota. The building was built with limestone and wood in 1867.</p><br>
<p>Episcopal families started meeting in private homes for about eight years before they decided to build a church. The minister traveled from Hastings, by foot or by horseback, for about 18 mi. In 1866, the congregation decided to build a church. Christopher Doner drew up the plans, while Lester Bancroft did the masonry. The stone was Platteville Limestone quarried from a farm north of Cannon Falls. Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple laid the cornerstone on June 28, 1866. When the church was complete, at a cost of about $3500, Bishop Whipple returned on May 1, 1867, to consecrate the church.</p><br>
<p>On February 12, 1980, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The 511 Federal Building is a former federal post office that is currently known as the Arlene and Harold Schnitzer Center for Art and Design of the Pacific Northwest College of Art  in Portland, Oregon, United States. PNCA moved into the building in February 2015, after a $32 million remodeling project.</p><br>
<p>Previous occupants of the building included the Department of Homeland Security offices for USA Citizenship and Immigration Services and USA Immigration and Customs Enforcement, as well as the Department of Agriculture.</p><br>
<p>The building was constructed in 1916–1918 and opened in 1919 The building is six stories tall and has a footprint of approximately 20,000 ft&sup2;. It has a basement and sub-basement, complete with walled off shanghai tunnels.</p><br>
<p>The Wyck house, also known as the Haines house or Hans Millan house, is a historic mansion, museum, garden, and urban farm in the Germantown neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1971 for its well-preserved condition and its documentary records, which span nine generations of a single family.American Philosophical Society Library . Wyck Association Collection. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<p>https://search.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.Ms.Coll.52-ead.xml;query=Wyck;brand=default</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolution, the Wyck house was occupied by British forces and used as a field hospital during the Battle of Germantown, in October 1777. Wyck was the site of an early American brewery from 1794 to 1801, and later became a meeting place of influential American scientists and artists including Thomas Say, Charles Lucien Bonaparte, John James Audubon, Thomas Nuttall, William Cooper, William Maclure, Charles Alexandre Lesueur, Margaretta Morris, Elizabeth Carrington Morris, and George Ord. Wyck is the type locality of the Queen snake (Regina septemvittata), discovered on the second floor of the house by Reuben Haines III and described in 1825 by Thomas Say. It is also the type locality of the terrestrial gastropod Ventridens suppressus (Say 1829).</p><br>
<p>The house was renovated in 1824 by William Strickland, the famous Greek revivalist architect. The following year, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette returned to visit the sites of the Battle of Germantown, and was hosted in a reception at Wyck.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Wyck&#39;s earliest owner was Hans Millan (also spelled Milan), a Quaker who came from Germany by 1689, and was a descendant of a Swiss Mennonite family.</p><br>
<p>In the next generation, Margaret Wistar (daughter of Catherine and Caspar) married Reuben Haines, a brewer and merchant of English descent from Burlington County, NJ. In 1771, Reuben funded the construction of a road (now Pennsylvania Route 45) from Sunbury through the "Woodward Narrows", to the modern site of Spring Mill — the first road in what is now Centre County. The modern boundaries of Penn Township (formed 1844) and a portion of Gregg Township (formed 1826) were annexed from a larger Haines Township (now only 148.6 km) that was established before Centre County was officially declared in 1800.</p><br>
<p>Their son Caspar Wistar Haines continued the family businesses and married Hannah Marshall, a member of another Quaker family. Wyck then passed to Reuben Haines III (1786–1831) and his wife Jane (Bowne) Haines (1792–1843). After their deaths, Wyck was passed to their youngest daughter, Jane Reuben Haines, who lived here until 1911, carefully preserving the house, furnishings and gardens.</p><br>
<p>Wyck served as a summer home until Reuben Haines III moved his family into it as their permanent residence. Shortly after this move, he hired his friend, William Strickland, to remodel the entire building. Reuben is also responsible for Wycks name, as nobody with the last name Wyck ever married into the family. On one of his many travels, Reuben came across a landscape sketch of Wyck the Seat of Richard Haines esq. Believing that Richard Haines was a relative, Reuben brought the sketch back to his house, and started calling his own home Wyck. It was later revealed that Reubens family had no connection to Richard Haines, but the name stuck.</p><br>
<p>In the eighth generation, Jane B. Haines founded the first school of horticulture for women, the Pennsylvania School of Horticulture for Women, which is now Temple Ambler, and one brother, Caspar, helped design the Mexican railway system; while another, Robert, invented a gauge for measuring steel in rolling mills.</p><br>
<p>The last owners, Robert B. Haines and his wife Mary (Troth) Haines, were fruit growers. Robert patented a device to press apples for a more natural tasting juice. In 1973, after Robert&#39;s death, Mary Haines initiated the transfer of Wyck and its private collections, and since 1978 the site has been run by the Wyck Association. Today, Wyck is maintained as a house museum.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Wyck is an architecturally innovative house with an old-fashioned skin. From the outside it appears colonial in plan and design with some fashionable accents such as the late 18th-century whitewashed stucco.</p><br>
<p>The house is actually an accumulation of 18th-century parts: the hall (c. 1700–1720), the front parlor (1736) and the library and dining room from (1771–1773, which replaced a c. 1690 log structure.)</p><br>
<p>The house has been little altered since 1824, when Philadelphia architect William Strickland dramatically rearranged its interior spaces to create an open plan, allowing light to flood each room and bringing the pleasures of the garden inside. Strickland also added a set of "folding doors", which swing on a 90-degree angle, allowing the owners to close off two rooms with only one door.</p><br>
<p>The Hutchinson–Suddath Building is a historic building at 315-319 East Bay Street in Jacksonville, Florida, United States. On October 3, 2007, it was added to the USA National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>This property is part of the Downtown Jacksonville Multiple Property Submission, a Multiple Property Submission to the National Register.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Hutchison-Suddath Building was built in 1910 for the Hutchinson Shoe Company, which occupied the building until 1931, when it was bought by the Suddath Company. In 1936, the building also held the Cable Piano Company.</p><br>
<p>The Milwaukee Road Bunkhouse was built by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad  in 1909 to house train crews between shifts. The bunkhouse served the crews at the rail yard and division point at South Cle Elum, Washington. The bunkhouse is an L-shaped, two-storey, wood-frame vernacular building originally placed near the depot, but moved to its present location south of the rail yard around 1920 to accommodate the electric substation when the Milwaukee Road electrified. The bunkhouse continued to serve train crews until 1974. When the railroad ceased operations in Washington in 1980, it sold the property to private individuals who converted the bunkhouse into a bed and breakfast.</p><br>
<p>Originally listed as 28 bedrooms and two bathrooms, the bunkhouse was renovated to 9 rooms The bunkhouse, now the Iron Horse Bed and Breakfast, currently rents bunkhouse rooms as well as four separate cabooses.</p><br>
<p>The bunkhouse was listed in the National Register because of its association with The Milwaukee Road and the development of railroads in Washington.</p><br>
<p>The Duane Methodist Episcopal Church is a historic Methodist Episcopal church located at Duane, Franklin County, New York.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church was built between 1883 and 1885. The church was in use for almost a century, and in the 1940s the Town of Duane began storing archives in the basement and also using the basement as a polling station. Note: This includes</p><br>
<p>In 1982 the church was closed due to declining membership and funds. It was purchased by the town, and since then has been used for meetings, weddings, and other events.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Romanesque Revival architectural design of the church draws from a New England meeting house design. The rounded dome of the steeple with the arches of the cupola is modeled after Christopher Wrens work, and is typical of New England meeting houses. Double doors lead into the vestibule of birch and maple. Double oak doors allow for entry into the main chapel. The walls and ceiling graduate from twelve feet to seventeen feet in height. There are eight stained glass windows (66" x 32") and square nails are used in the fluting frames of these windows. The walls are of birch and maple combined with wainscoting.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991.</p><br>
<p>Northwood is a neighborhood in the northeastern section of Baltimore, Maryland in the United States. Northwood is served by the New Northwood and the Original Northwood community associations. The area is also home to the Northwood Shopping Center and the Northwood Baseball League. Morgan State University is located in this area.</p><br>
<p>The proposed Green Line Subway extension would include a station in this neighborhood, as well as a station at Morgan State University.</p><br>
<h2>New Northwood</h2><br>
<p>As the name implies, New Northwood is composed of newer homes, built in the mid 1950s. The houses are generally brick row house with trees and shrubs lining most blocks. New Northwood is served by the New Northwood Covenant Association.</p><br>
<h3>Demographics</h3><br>
<p>According to the 2000 US Census, 7,000 people live in New Northwood with 96.2% African-American and 2.4% White. The median household income is $31,105 and 94.1% of the houses are occupied.</p><br>
<h2>Original Northwood</h2><br>
<p>Original Northwood is composed of single family and townhouses ranging in price from $175,000 to $500,000. Development began in September 1930 with themes such as half-timbering and stucco, irregular massing, and the New England house form with jetty. Development began when The Roland Park Company purchased the estates of John W. Garrett, Enoch Pratt and Arunah Shepherdson Abell. By January 1, 1932, about 25 families had bought homes in Original Northwood. Today, Original Northwood comprises 369 homes and is one of the top 15 city neighborhoods in wealth. Original Northwood was designated an Historic District in 1998 and represents the largest unified collection of the architect, John A. Ahlers. Ahlers planning for the inclusion of the natural terrain in his design, with a canopy of oaks and elms, made Original Northwood among the first totally planned communities in the nation.</p><br>
<p>During the 1930s and 1940s, when the neighborhood was being built, racial covenants were used to exclude African-Americans from owning homes in the community. A typical covenant from Northwood reads: "At no time shall the land or any building erected be occupied by any negro or person of negro extraction."</p><br>
<p>Northwood Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998.</p><br>
<h3>Demographics</h3><br>
<p>According to the 2000 US Census, 1,240 people live in Original Northwood with 56.5% African-American and 37.9% White. The median household income is $64,688 and 93.5% of the houses are occupied.</p><br>
<h3>Notable residents</h3><br>
<p>Patricia Jessamy- State&#39;s Attorney, Baltimore City</p><br>
<p>Robert W. Curran- member, Baltimore City Council</p><br>
<p>Tom Marr - Baltimore radio broadcaster for WCBM and WFBR, and former play-by-play announcer for the Baltimore Orioles</p><br>
<p>Tom Clancy- author</p><br>
<h2>Legislative districts</h2><br>
<p>New York State Armory, also known as "The Arsenal," is a historic National Guard armory building located at Ogdensburg in St. Lawrence County, New York. It is a rectangular, two story structure built of ransom ashlar block with central pavilions projecting on its north and south elevations. The main facade features a central pavilion with a tower rising above the roofline and terminating in a corbeled and crenellated parapet. It was designed by noted Syracuse architect Horatio Nelson White.</p><br>
<p>The building ceased being used by the State militia in 1873 and used by the city of Ogdensburg into the 1960s. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>The Armory is still owned by NY state and is still occupied by the 2-108th Infantry Battalion, New York Army National Guard. The city of Ogdensburg does not have any responsibility or use of this building unless approved by NY state.</p><br>
<p>Barn Bluff  is a bluff along the Mississippi River in Red Wing, Minnesota, United States. The bluff is considered sacred by the Dakota people because it is the site of many burial mounds. During the 19th century, the bluff functioned as a visual reference for explorers and travelers and later served as a limestone quarry.</p><br>
<p>The bluff overlooks the downtown area and towers about 400 ft above the Mississippi River with an extensive view of Lake Pepin to the south. It is one of hundreds of bluffs in the Driftless Area, which covers parts of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, in addition to the southeastern toe of Minnesota.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Most of the bluff is displaced approximately 40 m upwards relative to the adjoining bedrock along the Red Wing Fault, which transects the bluff near its south face. It is composed of early Paleozoic rocks, including Ordovician dolomite and sandstone atop Cambrian shale, siltstone and greensand at its base, deposited by early Paleozoic seas. The aggregates left by glacial drift and wind-deposited loess form a 20 m cap deposited some 450 million years after the bedrock beneath. Barn Bluff was cut off from nearby uplands by an earlier course of the ancestral Mississippi along which US Highway 61 now runs, and it was an island during the massive outflow of Glacial River Warren which carved much of the present Upper Mississippi Valley.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the arrival of European settlers, the bluff was used for sacred ceremonies for a number of Native American groups, most recently the Dakota who refer to it as He Mni Can ("Hill, water, wood"). There are ancient burial grounds dating back to A.D. 900-1300, located on top of the bluff and it is considered one of the most sacred places to the Dakota people. Seth Eastman painted a watercolor of that Dakota village in the 1840s and it is titled "Red Wing&#39;s Village 70 Miles below the Falls of St. Anthony". Besides being a place of worship and burial, the Dakota people also used it as a defensive location during battle. According to missionary Joseph W. Hancock, who observed in 1850 a false alarm where the Dakota thought an Ojibwe attack was imminent: "all the men gathered their weapons of war and took their canoes and were soon out of sight, in some hiding place along the river. The women and children taking what valuables they could carry, ascended Barn bluff, where they gathered stones and other missiles for self-defense."</p><br>
<p>Dakota legend about the bluff tells that hundreds of years ago, a mountain twice as big stood in the place of Barn Bluff. The residents of two Dakota villages disputed the possession of the mountain. As a compromise, the Great Spirit divided the mountain into two parts. One part stayed in Red Wing, and the other part was moved downstream to Winona, Minnesota, where it is known as Sugar Loaf.</p><br>
<p>In the 17th century, the French explored the area and probably conferred the title of LaGrange, but no record exists of who named the bluff. The name of Barn Bluff, according to Warren Upham, "is translated from its early French name, La Grange, meaning the Barn, which refers to its prominence as a lone, high, and nearly level-crested bluff, quite separated from the side bluffs of the valley, and therefore conspicuously seen at a distance of many miles up the valley and yet more observable from boats passing along Lake Pepin." The earliest published mention of the site appears to be in Jonathan Carver&#39;s Travels where he refers to having visited this feature in 1766. He described the view from Barn Bluff, writing, "The most beautiful prospect that imagination can form Verdant plains, fruitful meadows, and numerous islands abound with the most varied trees. But above all, reaching as far as the eye can extend, is the majestic, softly flowing river." Stephen H. Long climbed the bluff during his 1819 mapping expedition, describing it as, "From the summit of the Grange the view of the surrounding scenery is surpassed, perhaps, by very few, if any, of a similar character that the country and probably the world can afford. The sublime and beautiful are here blended in the most enchanting manner."</p><br>
<p>The bluff was used as a limestone quarry for about 40 years and was significant source of building materials for the city and surrounding areas as far as St. Paul and Minneapolis. In 1910, the land was donated to the city as a park and the former G.A. Carlson Lime Kiln was placed on The National Register of Historic Places on September 27, 1976.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, the city of Red Wing amended the name of the bluff to include the Dakota name and refers to it as He Mni Can-Barn Bluff. Today the bluff is thickly forested with deciduous trees at the top, with grass growing all throughout the base, and ringed all around by sandstone cliffs, except at the northern end where steps have been built and carved into the bluff. Using these steps, hikers can ascend the bluff with a strenuous but relatively brief hike.</p><br>
<p>The naturalist, essayist and philosopher Henry David Thoreau visited Red Wing in June 1861, less than a year before his death. He hiked to the top of the bluff and read his mail and wrote to a friend. "The top, as you know," he wrote, "rises to the general level of the surrounding country, the river having eaten out so much. Yet the valley just above and below this (we are at the head of Lake Pepin) must be three or four miles wide."</p><br>
<p>Balls Bluff Battlefield Regional Park and National Cemetery is a battlefield area and a United States National Cemetery, located 2 mi northeast of Leesburg, Virginia. The cemetery is the third smallest national cemetery in the United States. Fifty-four Union Army dead from the Battle of Balls Bluff are interred in 25 graves in the half-acre plot; the identity of all of the interred except for one, James Allen of the 15th Massachusetts, are unknown. Monuments to fallen Confederate Sergeant Clinton Hatcher and Union brigade commander Edward Dickinson Baker are located next to the cemetery, though neither is buried there. While the stone wall-enclosed cemetery itself is managed through the Culpeper National Cemetery and owned by the Department of Veterans Affairs, the balance of the 223 acre park is managed through the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority.</p><br>
<h2>Battle</h2><br>
<p>The Battle of Balls Bluff was a small but consequential defeat for the Union early in the American Civil War, occurring just months after the Union Armys rout after the First Battle of Bull Run and another embarrassing loss at Battle of Wilsons Creek in the Western Theater. The Union defeat at Balls Bluff revealed something to the public about the political nature of Union appointments of officers and their occasional incompetence, and led directly to the creation of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War.</p><br>
<p>On October 21, 1861, Union Colonel Edward D. Baker, a USA Senator from Oregon and close friend of President Abraham Lincoln, was given orders from Brigadier General Charles P. Stone to either withdraw Massachusetts troops who already had landed on the Virginia side of the Potomac River to reconnoiter and raid a Confederate camp north of Leesburg, or reinforce the expedition in the event the raid was successful, at his discretion. Before Baker could discover the true nature of the situation, Confederates pickets detected and fired upon the Union force, and local Confederate district commander Col. Nathan "Shanks" Evans quickly deployed his Virginia and Mississippi regiments against the threat, while still presenting a defense against a larger Union crossing downriver at Edwards Ferry. The inexperienced Baker crossed additional companies to the bluff, but positioned his troops poorly, with the peak of the bluff against their back and higher ground in front of their lines.</p><br>
<p>After a prolonged firefight, the Confederate pressure broke the Federal line, and the assault pushed the Union troops down the difficult terrain and onto the river bank, killing Baker and 222 others, wounding 226, and eventually capturing 553. The few boats available became quickly overloaded and some capsized due to overcrowding, so evacuation became impossible. Some swam across to nearby Harrison Island, but 161 went missing, many of them drowned in the swollen Potomac. Bodies of Union troops who had drowned floated downstream towards Washington, D.C. for days after the battle.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>Wartime Washington, D.C. was horrified by Bakers death. At the opening of the second session of the 37th Congress in December, the eulogies for the late senator went on for days. An investigative Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War was formed to examine the causes of the recent defeats, particularly actions related to the death of Baker, Lincolns close friend. Such congressional investigations, more common since, had only very weak precedents at the time. The committees operations were arguably an aggravation for the duration of the war, and ultimately ruined the career of General Stone, who was held accountable for Bakers defeat at Ball&#39;s Bluff. Army of the Potomac commanding general George B. McClellan, who was responsible at a larger level and had issued vague orders which set in motion the debacle, escaped blame.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery, landmark, park</h2><br>
<p>The land for a cemetery was donated in 1865.</p><br>
<p>The battlefield area was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1984. At that time the 300 ft tall bluff, the landing on the Potomac River, and almost all aspects of the site were substantially the same as the time of the battle 123 years before. An "intrusion" is the wall-enclosed Balls Bluff National Cemetery, holding 54 graves of Union dead (53 unknown, and James Allen of the 15th Massachusetts Infantry). Another intrusion is a fenced 1.3 mi approach road built in 1907. A commemorative marker for Confederate soldier Clinton Hatcher, of the 8th Virginia Infantry, and a marker of the site of Bakers mortal wounding, are nearby.</p><br>
<p>The regional park, maintained by the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority, contains over seven miles (11 km) of marked trails, including a mile-long loop trail to the bluff overlook with interpretive markers and 2.1 mi trail along the Potomac riverbank.</p><br>
<p>The Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad South Cle Elum Rail Yard located in South Cle Elum, Washington, was a division point on the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad&#39;s Coast Division. It was established by the railroad  in 1909 during construction of its "Pacific Extension".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After the completion of the first two transcontinental railroads into the Pacific Northwest, the Northern Pacific Railroad and the Great Northern Railway, The Milwaukee Road decided that in order to compete, it too must expand into the Northwest. It began construction on the Pacific Extension in 1906 and completed the rail line into Tacoma, Washington in 1909.</p><br>
<p>The Milwaukee Road placed division points approximately every 100 to 150 mi apart. The division point was where locomotives were serviced, where train crews came on and off duty, and where trains were sorted and rolling stock stored. In addition, depots or stations were also placed at division points in order for passengers or freight to get on or off trains.</p><br>
<p>The division point at Cle Elum (in what would be incorporated as the Town of South Cle Elum) was placed between the terminus at Tacoma and the next division point at Othello, Washington. Thus Cle Elum was the last crew change westbound before crossing the Cascade Range at Snoqualmie Pass and going into Seattle, Washington; as well as the first crew change eastbound from Seattle to Othello and beyond to the Midwest, the Twin Cities and Chicago, Illinois.</p><br>
<h2>The rail yard</h2><br>
<p>The rail yard at South Cle Elum consisted of the depot, the roundhouse (now a ruin), the turntable (also a ruin), ash pit, water tank (now a ruin), and the bunkhouse where train crews spent time between shifts. After The Milwaukee Road electrified around 1920, an electric substation and substation operators&#39; residences were also built at the rail yard.</p><br>
<h2>After The Milwaukee Road abandonment and Iron Horse State Park</h2><br>
<p>In 1980 The Milwaukee Road ceased service in Washington. It sold off much of its property. The bunkhouse became a bed and breakfast, the substation operators houses were taken over by private individuals who continue to live in them. In lieu of paying back taxes, the railroad transferred ownership of the main line and infrastructure to the state. The John Wayne Pioneer Wagons and Riders Association was instrumental in having the State of Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR) take over the property and create a trail. In honor of the clubs activities, the trail was named the John Wayne Pioneer Trail. In 1985, the DNR transferred the trail to the State Parks and Recreation Commission who then created Iron Horse State Park. The remaining buildings such as the depot and substation, as well as the remains of the rail yard were integrated into the park. In 2018 the State Park and Recreation Commission renamed the John Wayne Pioneer Trail to the Palouse to Cascades State Park Trail.</p><br>
<p>The depot is now a museum operated for the park&#39;s benefit by the.</p><br>
<p>Because of the integrity of the buildings as well as the integrity of the setting, the rail yard and associated buildings were listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.</p><br>
<p>The Beaver Mills are a historic mill complex located at 93–115 Railroad Street in Keene, New Hampshire, United States. The complex consists of two late 19th century brick mill buildings, along with several adjacent support buildings including warehouses, garages, and a boiler house. The oldest buildings at the site date to 1871–72.</p><br>
<p>Mill #1 is located at 115 Railroad Street. Originally, the mill complex included two buildings, that were joined in c. 1920 to create a -story brick building. Both older buildings date to 1871–2, with the northern one having a three-story addition added in 1915. Mill #2, 93 Railroad Street, is also 3.5 stories tall, and architecturally resembles the eastern portion of the #1 mill. It was originally built 1871–2 with a cupola, which was destroyed by fire in 1889 and not rebuilt. A long, two story wood-frame building extends west from this building. A c. 1980 concrete and metal addition nearly doubles the size of the main mill building.</p><br>
<p>The Beaver Mill complex was historically used for the construction of wood products, and served as an "incubator" for small wood-working enterprises, providing steam power and access to the railroads. Products produced in the complex include chairs, boxes, pails, and buckets. The complex was the largest mill in the city at the time, and is one of the few to survive. Mill #2 continues in industrial use, while Mill #1 has been rezoned for commercial uses.</p><br>
<p>The mill complex was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.</p><br>
<p>McConnell&#39;s Windmill, also known as Morristown Windmill and Stone Windmill, is a stone windmill in Morristown, New York. It was built in 1825, and is a coursed rubble stone structure measuring 40 feet tall and 77 feet in circumference. It was used as a grist mill. The building has been used as a jail and as an Air Warning System Observation Post  during World War II. It is the only windmill on the American side of the St. Lawrence Valley.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<p>Blooming Grove United Church of Christ, also known just as Blooming Grove Church and formerly known as The Congregational Church of Blooming Grove, is located at the junction of Old Dominion Road and NY 94 in the town of Blooming Grove, between the villages of Chester and Washingtonville in Orange County, New York, United States. It is a plain white Federal style building, notable for lacking the steeple or cupola commonly found on churches.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church itself was formed in 1758 as a Presbyterian congregation. It had enough members that it was able to buy land for a meetinghouse the following year, the exact site of which is not known. Growth continued, and by 1823 it was necessary to expand.</p><br>
<p>The members decided that instead of expanding the existing structure they would sell it and buy new land for a new church with the proceeds. Shortly afterwards, the old building was razed. Only some of the interior woodwork has been preserved.</p><br>
<p>As was common at the time, construction also was financed by subscription: families would buy pews in their name, essentially making them partners in the church. The new building, designed by architect Joseph Cromwell, was 75 feet (23 m) by 63 feet (19 m). It had a sloping floor and box pews, with a gallery behind the pulpit. The builders used the king and queen post method of roof support, so that the sanctuary is completely open, with no interior pillars or columns obstructing anyone&#39;s view of the pulpit.</p><br>
<p>In another practice common at the time, pews were built along the side of the church for congregants&#39; slaves. The walls were finished by a local plasterer who had perfected a putty-like look, the exact details of which he never revealed. It was finished and opened in 1824.</p><br>
<p>A decade later, the congregation broke with Presbyterianism after its then-pastor, James Arbuckle, was tried for heresy. It became a Congregational church, but did not rename itself as such until 1871.</p><br>
<p>The only major change to the interior of the church came in 1902, when locally raised industrialist David Moffat bought a pipe organ in memory of his fathers service there as choirmaster. The addition caused considerable controversy within the congregation. One member went so far as to sue the church since his familys pew would have to be dismantled (the action was withdrawn).</p><br>
<p>In 1919, after World War I, the church dedicated a stained glass "Service Window" to honor Blooming Grove residents who had served in the military. Charles S. Whitman, then governor, came to the church to speak at the dedication ceremony.</p><br>
<p>The church arrived at its current denomination in 1957 when the Congregational Christian Churches merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church and both became the United Church of Christ. In 1996 the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places, making it the first and so far only NRHP listing in the town.</p><br>
<p>The Saturn V dynamic test vehicle, designated SA-500D, is a prototype Saturn V rocket used by NASA to test the performance of the rocket when vibrated to simulate the shaking which subsequent rockets would experience during launch. It was the first full-scale Saturn V completed by the Marshall Space Flight Center . Though SA-500D never flew, it was instrumental in the development of the Saturn V rocket which propelled the first men to the Moon as part of the Apollo program. Built under the direction of Dr. Wernher von Braun, it served as the test vehicle for all of the Saturn support facilities at MSFC.</p><br>
<p>SA-500D is the only Saturn V on display that was used for its intended purpose, and the only one to have been assembled prior to museum display. It is on permanent display at the USA Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama.</p><br>
<h2>Pre-flight configurations</h2><br>
<p>Before a Saturn V could be launched, engineers needed to verify that their design had accounted for everything the rocket would encounter on its journey, from assembly to the launchpad and from Earth to the Moon. To validate the Saturn V design and procedures, they created five pre-flight configurations for testing. These configurations were subjected to tests simulating all aspects of flight preparations and flight itself, and all the tests needed to demonstrate satisfactory results before MSFC would certify the Saturn V to fly.</p><br>
<p>SA-500D was one of the five pre-flight configurations of the Saturn V. This configuration showed the Saturn Vs "bending and vibration characteristics" and verified "the adequacy of guidance and control systems design."</p><br>
<p>Other pre-flight configurations were:</p><br>
<p>Battleship test model, used for initial engine firing and design improvements</p><br>
<p>Structural test model, to certify the structure for loads during launch at the anticipated temperatures, and to assess the stiffness of each stage</p><br>
<p>SA-500F, the facilities checkout model, verify launch facilities, train launch crews, and develop test and checkout procedures.</p><br>
<p>SA-500T, all-systems test model, for static firing of engines in the flight configuration</p><br>
<p>The vehicle designated SA-500D did not include an Apollo spacecraft, but boilerplate parts were used during testing to verify the entire system.</p><br>
<h2>Development of the test article</h2><br>
<p>The Saturn V consisted of three stages and an Instrument Unit (IU). The first stage, S-IC, delivered 7,610,000 lbf thrust and delivered the other stages to 200,000 ft. The third stage, S-IVB provided the final push to orbit and the trans-lunar injection burn to set the Apollo spacecraft on a course to the Moon. The IU was the guidance and control computer. SA-500D was the assembly of these components for dynamic testing.</p><br>
<p>The Saturn V dynamic test stand with "electrodynamic shakers" provided a table capable not only of holding the Saturn V fully assembled and fueled, but also able to simulate the vibrations that would be generated by rocket engines.</p><br>
<p>The components used for testing were developed from 1964 to 1966, and the tests conducted in 1966–67. Because the Saturn V shared some components with the Saturn IB, some of the components for SA-500D were initially used for dynamic testing with the Saturn IB stack.</p><br>
<p>In naming the individual stages, MSFC used the stage designation with a suffix indicating its purpose. For example, S-IC-D was the first stage, S-IC, for dynamic testing, and S-IC-1 was the first flight model of the first stage. Suffixes used were "S", for structural, "F" for facilities, "T" for all-systems test, and "D" for dynamic testing.</p><br>
<p>Following is a history of each component of the dynamic test article in order of appearance.</p><br>
<h3>Apollo boilerplate</h3><br>
<p>BP-27 consisted of hardware specifically built for that configuration and some hardware reassigned from other designations. The command module and launch escape system were unique to BP-27. The service module SM-010 (formerly SM-006) and the spacecraft–lunar module adapter SLA #1 were also assigned to BP-27.</p><br>
<p>BP-27 was accepted at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in late September 1964.</p><br>
<p>Shortly thereafter, MSFC took delivery of the boilerplate lunar module, called a lunar test article and designated LTA-2. LTA-2 is the only part of SA-500D to fly in space. It was refurbished, designated LTA-2R, and flew on Apollo 6.</p><br>
<p>BP-27 was used for Saturn IB dynamic testing, shipped to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) to be a component of SA-500F, and shipped back to MSFC for full-stack testing with SA-500D.</p><br>
<h3>Third stage</h3><br>
<p>The third stage, S-IVB-D arrived at MSFC before any other Saturn V stages because it was destined for dynamic testing in the Saturn IB first. It was assembled by Douglas near Los Angeles. With ceremony and dignitaries for the first Douglas-built S-IVB stage, it set out by barge December 8, 1964, and made its way to New Orleans via the Panama Canal, the Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennessee Rivers to MSFC, where it arrived on January 4, 1965. The same day, MSFC took delivery of the first stage of the Saturn IB for dynamic and facilities checkout testing, S-IB-D/F. The parts were assembled together with the instrument unit designated S-IU-200D/500D (see below) and BP-27 for dynamic testing in the Saturn IB configuration from February to September 1965 before it was allocated to the Saturn V configuration.</p><br>
<h3>Instrument unit</h3><br>
<p>The Saturn V instrument unit served as the electronics hub for the first three stages of the rocket, controlling engine firing, guidance, stage separation, and climate for the three stages below. It consisted of two main parts, a rigid ring for structure, and within that, electronics.</p><br>
<p>Instrument units had a slightly different numbering scheme than the other parts. S-IU-200D/500D was for use with the SA-200D dynamic test article – a Saturn IB, and also for use with SA-500D, the Saturn V.</p><br>
<p>IBM won the contract to build electronics for the IU, and so, by 1964, constructed a $14 million four-building complex including a manufacturing facility with clean room in Huntsville.</p><br>
<p>The IUs structural ring had two responsibilities: provide a mounting location for IBMs electronics and hold everything on top of it. It needed to be structurally sound enough to hold the weight of the lunar module, service module, command module, and the three astronauts during the acceleration provided by three mighty stages of rocket beneath. The rings were all fabricated at MSFC.</p><br>
<p>The IU for SA-500D was not the first built. MSFC built S-IU-200V/500V for vibration testing from September to November 1964. Wyle Labs tested it as part of the Saturn I-B program.</p><br>
<p>S-IU-200D/500D was the second IU to be built, with the ring completed in January 1965 and electronic components from IBM installed by February 1. It was the last piece necessary for dynamic testing in the Saturn IB program. It was stacked together with S-IVB-D, S-IB-D, and BP-27 for Saturn IB testing through much of 1965. On October 8, 1965, it began dynamic testing for the Saturn V program as part of SA-500D.</p><br>
<h3>First stage</h3><br>
<p>S-IC-D, was under construction on September 9, 1965, when Hurricane Betsy struck the Michoud Assembly Facility. The building housing the stage sustained severe damage, but the stage itself was repaired promptly.</p><br>
<p>S-IC-D set out on the maiden voyage of NASA barge Poseidon to Marshall Space Flight Center on October 6, 1965, and arrived at MSFC October 13. The first stage was lifted into place in the dynamic test stand January 13, 1966 in the picture top right. Said one observer, "Fog and clouds hovered around the top of the 360 foot tall test stand most of the day while the 300,000 lb stage was being lifted from its transporter into place inside the stand, said to be the tallest building in Alabama."</p><br>
<h3>Second stage</h3><br>
<p>The second stage of SA-500D had a complex history. The second stage, S-II-D had been on order, but that part was cancelled February 19, 1965. The plan was to use another test article for dynamic testing as well as its other purpose. Two such test articles were destroyed during testing after having been designated for the dynamic test phase. The actual article used in SA-500D was named in the third re-allocation, when S-II-F, the facilities checkout article, was designated S-II-F/D.</p><br>
<p>S-II-S, which North American Aviation&#39;s Space and Information Systems Division (S&ID) at Seal Beach had completed by January 31, was re-designated as S-II-S/D to be used for dynamic testing. S-II-S/D would not survive its final structural test on September 29, 1965, but the test was exercising considerable margin above the structural integrity required for flight.</p><br>
<p>tests. These excerpts from Saturn V Quarterly Film Reports show SA-500D coming together for testing.</p><br>
<p>In January 1966, the all-systems test S-II-T was re-designated S-II-T/D, so that it might be used for dynamic testing as well as engine firing. S-II-T/D completed integrated checkout of ground support facilities at MTF on February 3, 1966. S-II-T/D&#39;s engines were fired five times at MTF from April to May, including a full-duration test. On May 28, 1966, S-II-T/D was undergoing a pressure test to find a hydrogen leak, but the hydrogen pressure sensors and switches had been disconnected unbeknownst to the second-shift crew when they tried to pressurize the tank. Five technicians sustained minor injuries. MSFC convened an investigation that night, and the team completed the report in two days.</p><br>
<p>After the S-II-T/D destruction, a third article was assigned to dynamic test duties. Facilities checkout article S-II-F became the dynamic test article designated S-II-F/D. S-II-F was shipped from S&ID, Seal Beach, California on February 20, 1966, to Kennedy Space Center where it arrived March 4. It filled in the final part of SA-500F to check out facilities for processing the Saturn V, replacing a dumbbell-shaped temporary stage of the same length and weight as an S-II stage. SA-500F was assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building where it was mated to S-IC-F on March 28 and S-IVB-F the next day.</p><br>
<p>SA-500F was completed in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), tested for stability against swaying in the wind, and rolled out to the launch pad May 25, 1966, on Mobile Launcher-1 (ML-1).</p><br>
<p>Hurricane Alma interrupted exercises as SA-500F was rolled back to the VAB on June 8, though the ground crew supposed the rollback was more of an exercise than necessity because winds remained below critical for the entire storm.</p><br>
<p>After facilities checkout at KSC was completed, the remaining components of SA-500F were then transferred to MSFC for inclusion in SA-500D: the Apollo boilerplate BP-27 and S-II-F/D. The second stage was modified for dynamic testing, and shipped by Posideon from KSC on October 29 to arrive at MSFC November 10, 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Dynamic testing</h2><br>
<p>Engineers needed a detailed knowledge of the space vehicle&#39;s dynamic flight characteristics to design structural, guidance, and flight control systems. They initially used analytical data that had not been substantiated by test for design criteria. The dynamic test vehicle test project determined the dynamic characteristics of the space vehicle and verified earlier analyses.</p><br>
<p>The objectives of the dynamic tests were to:</p><br>
<p>Dynamic tests came in three configurations, one for each phase of Saturn V-powered flight. Configuration I focused on testing the entire stack, as if the vehicle had just been launched. Configuration II exercised the stack as if the first stage had jettisoned and the second stage were firing, and configuration III tested just the third stage and Apollo spacecraft. Tests began with Configuration III in the Saturn IB dynamic test facility, while the Saturn V dynamic test stand, first, and second stages were still under construction. Configuration I testing followed in the Saturn V dynamic test stand, then Configuration II in the same place.</p><br>
<p>Configuration III testing took place in late 1965.</p><br>
<p>Configuration I dynamic tests required the first stage of the Saturn V, which was loaded into the test stand January 13, 1966. Testing would have to wait for the last piece, the second stage, to arrive.</p><br>
<p>With all the components at MSFC as of November 10, 1966, the second stage was stacked atop the first inside the dynamic test stand on November 23. The third stage was added to the stack November 30, and the Instrument Unit and boilerplate Apollo were installed in December. The rocket was stacked and ready for "Configuration One" testing.</p><br>
<p>Configuration One Testing ran from January through March. Testing produced "several minor irregularities indicating the need for possible engineering changes" which were addressed during March, 1967.</p><br>
<p>Configuration Two testing followed, in which the first stage was removed from the stack to simulate conditions after the first stage had jettisoned.</p><br>
<p>Dynamic testing examined "the vehicle&#39;s response to lateral, longitudinal, and torsional excitation, simulating those that would be experienced in flight. The vehicle was "mounted on a hydrodynamic support system made up of four hydraulic/pneumatic pedestals to permit a simulated unrestrained reaction." Engineers tested vibrations in one plane at a time with different amounts of ballast simulating "fuel load at critical time points in the flight trajectory."</p><br>
<p>NASA historian Mike Wright summarizes the testing:</p><br>
<p>On August 3, 1967, MSFC announced the successful completion of the dynamic test program, thereby declaring dynamics and structures of the Saturn V ready for its first launch later in the year. The dynamic testing resulted in "several slight modifications" to the final flight vehicle.</p><br>
<p>The first Saturn V launch came three months later, with Apollo 4. The dynamic test article LTA-2 was refurbished as LTA-2R and flown on the next Saturn V launch, Apollo 6.</p><br>
<p>After dynamic testing, the second stage returned to KSC for a time for launchpad B checkout.</p><br>
<h2>Public display</h2><br>
<p>After all tests were complete, the SA-500D was reassembled in Huntsville, this time for public exhibition at the Alabama Space Science Center, on land carved out of the north edge of Marshall Space Flight Center. Transport of the rocket, along with the Saturn I which would be erected vertically, to the museum, took place June 28, 1969. The rocket would be displayed lying down on the southern edge of a rocket park with its predecessor rockets, near a Saturn 1 standing erect and a moonscape complete with model lunar module and a flag. SA-500D was installed in 1969, and the (renamed) Alabama Space and Rocket Center opened in 1970 showcasing articles that could otherwise only be seen by NASA and Army workers at Redstone Arsenal. The first stage sat on a low-boy trailer and the others in cradles. The instrument unit was put on display inside the museum, and interstages were given roofs and converted to educational rides for the museum.</p><br>
<p>SA-500D was added to the List of Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmarks by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1980 and declared a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 1987.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, the museum assumed its current name, USA Space & Rocket Center.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>After decades of the vehicle resting unprotected outdoors, the USA Space & Rocket Center commissioned the restoration of the vehicle in 2005. Analysis by Conservation Solutions, Incorporated determined significant damage from both weather and pest infestations. Various materials comprising the vehicle, including metal alloys and non-metal materials such as polyurethane foam and fiberglass, exhibited significant deterioration. After conducting the analysis, full restoration of the Saturn V vehicle began in June 2005.</p><br>
<p>Restoration culminated in July 2007 when the Saturn V was moved into a building designed as protection for the artifact and to provide additional museum facilities. The move took place from July 10 to approximately July 17, starting with the first stage. The Davidson Center for Space Exploration opened in January 2008.</p><br>
<p>On May 3, 2012, an unknown person fired three.308 caliber bullets from Interstate 565 at the Davidson Center, breaking three windows. Two bullets struck SA-500D&#39;s third stage marring paint and leaving dents. No people were harmed. The damage was repaired within two months.</p><br>
<h3>Components on display</h3><br>
<p>This display consists of S-IC-D, S-II-F/D, and S-IVB-D, S-IU-200D/500D, an SLA (possibly SLA-1), SM-010, and BP-23A.</p><br>
<p>For the Block II Environmental Control System tests, the assembly of Launch Escape System (LES) 006, Boilerplate (BP) 006 and SM 006 were used. After ECS testing, CM-006 was scrapped, while the LES 006 was reassigned to Boilerplate 14, and SM-006 was reassigned to SM 010. LES 006/BP-14 was later reassigned a second time to BP-23A, used on PA-2 (Pad Abort 2), and was destroyed as part of testing. The CM for BP 23A remained, and wound up on the SA-500D display, with former SM-006/SM-010.</p><br>
<p>SM-006/SM-010 was to be used at MSFC for testing, but testing was canceled, and SM-010 was reassigned for use with BP-27. At some point, it seems this SM was repurposed to be used with BP-23A and the SA-500D display.</p><br>
<p>BP-23 launched for A-002 to test the launch escape system and recovery parachutes on December 8, 1964. It was refurbished, designated BP-23A, and exercised the launch escape system again in Launch Pad Abort Test 2, June 29, 1965.</p><br>
<p>BP-27, the dynamic test boilerplate article, is on display at the USA Space and Rocket Center atop the vertical Saturn I.</p><br>
<p>Other Apollo and Saturn artifacts on display include the Apollo 16 command module, the Apollo 12 Mobile Quarantine Facility, a Lunar Lander with a test article landing stage (MSFC 76545) and a replica ascent stage, and another Instrument Unit.</p><br>
<p>The Neal Dow House, also known as Gen. Neal Dow House, is an historic house found at 714 Congress Street in Portland, Maine. It was built in 1829 for noted politician and prohibitionist Neal Dow , and was later designated a National Historic Landmark for that association. Dow was the author of the first prohibition law passed by the Maine legislature in 1851 . He was known as a tireless, internationally known activist for the temperance movement. Dows house was a center of activism in his lifetime, and is now the headquarters of the Maine chapter of the Womens Christian Temperance Union.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and building history</h2><br>
<p>The Dow house is a large, -story, 17-room brick structure with late Federal styling. It is roughly rectangular in shape, with three distinct sections. A main block, stories in height and three bays wide, anchors the corner lot on which it stands. A -story ell extends to the right from the rear of this block, and there is a single-story flat-roof section in the crook of the L created by the two taller sections. The main entrance is in the right side bay of the main block, and is sheltered by a late Victorian decorative hood.</p><br>
<p>The building was constructed in 1829, on the occasion of Neal Dows marriage to Maria Maynard. It was Dows home for 67 years, until his death at age 93 in 1897. The house was given by Dows son Fred to the local chapter of the Womens Christian Temperance Union, along with a large number of Dow&#39;s possessions and related artifacts. Although the chapter went through a period of low activity, attempts were begun in 2013 to revive it after the state legalized the sale of marijuana. The house is open to the public at no charge on weekdays or by appointment.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>Neal Dow was born and raised in Portland to Quaker parents, and was an early advocate of temperance as well as a prominent local businessman. In 1829 he organized the Maine Temperance Union, and began to speak publicly in favor of the complete prohibition of alcohol. He won election as mayor of Portland in 1851, and immediately promoted the passage of a statewide prohibition law, which he was the author of. The law passed, bringing Dow a nationwide reputation, and labeling such laws in other states as "Maine laws". He traveled extensively throughout the country, speaking on behalf of the cause. During the American Civil War he served in the Union Army, rising to the rank of brigadier general. After the war he resumed his temperance activities, and also visited England, making common cause with temperance advocates there. In the 1880 presidential election he was a candidate for president on the Prohibition Party ticket, receiving about 10,000 votes. He remained active in the cause until his death. Biographer Frank Byrne credits Dow for paving the way, in terms of his principles, strategy, and tactics, for later temperance advocates.</p><br>
<p>Dow&#39;s house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, and was designated a National Historic Landmark the following year.</p><br>
<p>Edwin Warner Park and Percy Warner Park, collectively known as Warner Parks, are two major public parks in Nashville, Tennessee. They are part of the park system managed by the Metropolitan Board of Parks and Recreation of Nashville and Davidson County. Percy Warner Park&#39;s front entrance is located at the end of Belle Meade Boulevard. The parks are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Warner Park Historic District. The district is primarily within Nashville along the southern edge of Davidson County, Tennessee, but it extends into Williamson County, Tennessee as well.</p><br>
<p>The two parks are adjacent to each other, separated by Old Hickory Boulevard, and are located approximately 9 mi from downtown Nashville. They are bounded on the northwest by Tennessee State Route 100, on the east and north by Chickering Road, and partially on the south by Old Hickory Blvd. and Vaughn Road. The two parks cover 2,684 acre, making the combined parks the second largest municipal park in the state (after Bays Mountain Park in Kingsport which is 3,750 acres). The parks offer a variety of activities, including hiking trails, cross country courses, and an equestrian center.</p><br>
<p>Through funds raised by Friends of Warner Parks, the Warner Parks system added 448 acres in late 2014, expanding the park to more than 3,000 acres. Two properties were purchased for this expansion to enhance the park resources, including the 225-acre Burch Reserve with wooded hills and an old-growth forest previously owned by H. G. Hill Realty. The Burch Reserve is home to Nashville&#39;s largest cave in addition to small ponds, meadows and forestry. Ridges and hollows of the former H. G. Hill property are part of what is considered the largest old growth forest in an urban area east of the Mississippi.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The parks were opened in 1927, and are on land donated by Percie Warner Lea and her husband, Luke. The parks were named for her father, Percy, a member of the old Nashville Board of Park Commissioners and former head of the city&#39;s streetcar lines and electric utility, and her uncle Edwin, who was also a park commissioner. The commission developed the parks into their present layout through 1930. A large, ceremonial-style entrance to Percy Warner Park, reminiscent of a European allee, along with many other, smaller native Tennessee limestone structures in and adjacent to the parks, were constructed by the Works Progress Administration during the New Deal era shortly afterwards.</p><br>
<p>The parks were named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The listing was for a 2,664 acre historic district. When listed, the district included five contributing buildings, 36 contributing structures, and 14 contributing sites. Also included were 10 non-contributing buildings, eight non-contributing structures, and five non-contributing sites.</p><br>
<p>The district has dates of significance in 1927, 1930, and 1941. More recently there was a significant addition of land across Tennessee State Route 100 from the rest of the park, purchased from the H. G. Hill family and consisting predominately of old-growth virgin forest, in 2010. The fund raising effort for this purpose was headed by local attorney Warner Bass, grandson and great-nephew of park namesakes Edwin and Percy Warner, respectively, and coordinated through the parks&#39; charitable support group, Friends of Warner Parks.</p><br>
<p>The Warner Park Historic District was further designated a Nashville landmark in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>The parks offer a variety of trails for running and biking. Cars can drive through parts of Percy Warner park as well. There are also equestrian trails, athletic fields, and a golf course. Percy Warner Park is characterized by a group of steps built into the mountain located at the entrance to the park. Walkers can traverse these steps to reach the base of many hiking and biking trails.</p><br>
<p>The parks are home to a steeplechase course that hosts the Iroquois Steeplechase, run annually each May since 1941 (with one year off for World War II) and another (2020) due to the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. It is a fixture on the National Steeplechase Association circuit. It is the only graded horse race, steeplechase or flat, that is currently run in the state. It is also home to the TSSAA state championship in cross-country.</p><br>
<p>The parks are also home to two golf courses, the 18-hole Harpeth Hills Golf Course and 9-hole Percy Warner Golf Course, the Warner Park Nature Center, the Rock and Road Relay, Marathon, and 5K. and the Harpeth Hills Flying Monkey Marathon.</p><br>
<p>Johnson County, Texas, has had many courthouses since it was formed.</p><br>
<h2>Historical courthouses of Johnson County</h2><br>
<p>The original courthouse was at Wardville. It is still in existence today at a park on the banks of Lake Pat Cleburne, though it suffered damage at the hands of arsonists in 2007. In 1856, the county seat was moved to Buchanan and a new courthouse was built, which survived until at least the mid-1860s. A two-story framed courthouse was planned but never constructed. When part of Johnson County was consolidated into Hood County the county seat was moved again, to "Camp Henderson" which was renamed Cleburne. The first building used was off the square proper of the town, at 2 North Caddo. A two-story brick courthouse was completed on October 26, 1879. In 1882, this one was razed and a new brick building was built which included a bell tower. Though it was brick, it shared styling with neighboring Hill County&#39;s courthouse. This was destroyed by fire on April 15, 1912.</p><br>
<h2>Current courthouse</h2><br>
<p>The current Prairie style structure was completed on November 28, 1913 and was renovated in 2006.</p><br>
<p>The Rankin Ranch is a historic ranch off Montana Highway 284, north of Townsend in rural Broadwater County, Montana. A National Historic Landmark, it was a longtime summer residence of Jeannette Rankin , whose 1916 election to the United States House of Representatives made her the first woman elected to the House. Her legacy includes a penchant for pacifism, women&#39;s rights, and social reform. She served another term from 1941 to 1943 when she was the only member of the House to oppose the declaration of war against Japan in 1941. A small portion of the ranch was designated a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Rankin Ranch is located on the southwestern flank of the Big Belt Mountains, between Montana Highway 284 and Helena National Forest. The ranch consists of about 14,000 acre of land, most of which is open prairie. The ranch complex is located on Avalanche Gulch Road, a county road providing access to the national forest, just southwest of the national forest boundary, and is screened by a number of trees. The main house is a modest single-story clapboarded frame structure. The front facade, facing roughly west, is set behind a recessed porch supported by fieldstone posts. The interior, of the house, and the accompanying ranch outbuildings, are not architecturally distinguished.</p><br>
<p>The ranch house is believed to have been built in 1923 by Dan Flouree, the same year the initial 2,000 acre parcel of the ranch was purchased by Wellington Rankin, brother of Jeannette Rankin. This ranch became the regular summer home for Jeanette from then until 1956. Of all of the places she lived, it is the place where she spent the most of her time during the height of her political influence. Elected in 1916 to the United States House of Representatives, she was the first woman elected to Congress. She was a strong pacificist, opposing American entry into both World War I and World War II; in 1941, she was the only member of Congress to oppose the war declaration after the December Attack on Pearl Harbor. She was a supporter of socially progressive legislation, working to secure women&#39;s suffrage.</p><br>
<p>An area of 90 acre surrounding the homestead was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976, in recognition of Rankin&#39;s historic role.</p><br>
<p>Travelers Rest was a stopping point of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, located about one mile south of Lolo, Montana. The expedition stopped from September 9 to September 11, 1805, before crossing the Bitterroot Mountains, and again on the return trip from June 30 to July 3, 1806. Travelers Rest is at the eastern end of the Lolo Trail. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The boundaries were subsequently revised, and mostly lie within the 51 acre Travelers Rest State Park, which is operated by the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. Significant archeological findings made in 2002, including latrine sites with traces of mercury and fire hearths, make this the only site on the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail that has yielded physical proof of the explorers presence. Records made by Lewis and Clark often spell "Travelers" as "Travellers". After departing here in 1806, Lewis&#39; part of the expedition traveled to what is now the Alice Creek Historic District.</p><br>
<p>At the time of landmark designation in 1960, the exact location of the expedition&#39;s campsite was unknown. Boundaries were formalized on December 12, 1983. Subsequent investigations revealed that errors had been made in setting the boundaries of the landmark. Detailed historical and scientific investigations resulted in a 55-page request for boundary corrections, submitted on May 10, 2004, and approved on March 21, 2006. A new road and bridge were built in 2006.</p><br>
<p>The Penn Alto Building is an historic landmark building that is located in downtown Altoona, Pennsylvania, United States. It is nine stories high and has a partial tenth floor penthouse.</p><br>
<h2>History and architectural features</h2><br>
<p>The name of the building remains the same, even though its usage has altered over time. The name changed from the Penn Alto Hotel to Penn Alto Apartments when it changed from strictly being a hotel to a residential hotel, which rents both apartments and hotel rooms. The current name is City Hall Commons, deriving its name from its proximity to City Hall, which is just across the street.</p><br>
<p>The building, which was designed by the H.L. Stevens & Company and built in 1921, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989. It is located in the Downtown Altoona Historic District.</p><br>
<p>Official measurements of the building conflict with each other. One measurement is as conservative as 98 ft, while another lists it as 115 ft. These variations may be due to the slight incline that the Penn Alto was built on.</p><br>
<p>The Houston County Courthouse and Jail, located at 304 Marshall Street South in Caledonia, Houston County in the USA state of Minnesota, consists of a Romanesque stone courthouse featuring a prominent center tower, built in 1883 and an Italianate stone jail and sheriff residence built in 1875. Both were designed by C. G. Maybury & Son of Winona.</p><br>
<p>In the late nineteenth century there was considerable disagreement about the location of the Houston County seat. In 1874, Caledonia was named and construction soon began on the jail and sheriff&#39;s residence. By 1882 planning began on the courthouse. Construction was by Noonan and Stellwager at a cost of $60,000, and the building was completed in 1885. Taxpayers criticized the expense of ornamental carpentry and five chandeliers, while county taxes doubled. The current building includes additions built in 1965 and 1977.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, construction began on a new justice center next to the old courthouse; it will replace the old jail.</p><br>
<p>The Jackson County Courthouse, located at 413 4th Street in the city of Jackson, Jackson County in the USA state of Minnesota consists of a Bedford limestone Beaux Arts courthouse featuring a high, segmented dome adorned with a cast statue of Lady Justice, columns supporting a gable overhang, a shield pediment, and symmetrical pavilions.</p><br>
<p>The building was built by Charles Skooglun of Saint Paul at a cost $117,435 in 1908-1909. The imposing structure is topped by a two-plus-story dome with stained glass windows. This sits over an octagonal atrium with terrazzo floors, marbled plaster walls, and a second-floor courtroom painted by immigrants with extensive murals; they depict scenes such as a frontier cabin, a railroad, Romans engaged in engineering and construction, and three women (justice, liberty, and equality) guarding a judge&#39;s bench.</p><br>
<p>The Kanabec County Courthouse, located at 18 Vine Street North in Mora, Kanabec County in the USA state of Minnesota is a beige brick, Romanesque building, featuring a prominent 4-story center tower. The courthouse sits on a stone foundation. Arched windows and doorways with brown sandstone sills lend distinction. The eaves were built with unusual corbelled brick and the corners of the tower are decorated with tourelles. Hardwood floors and oak balusters lead to the second-floor courtrooms. Charles Skoglund built the building in 1894 for $7,200.</p><br>
<p>It was designed by architects Buechner and Jacobson.</p><br>
<p>The American Gothic House, also known as the Dibble House, is a house in Eldon, Iowa, designed in the Carpenter Gothic style with a distinctive upper window. It was the backdrop of the 1930 painting American Gothic by Grant Wood, generally considered Wood&#39;s most famous work and among the most recognized paintings in twentieth century American art. Wood, who observed the house only twice in his lifetime, made only an initial sketch of the house—he completed American Gothic at his studio in Cedar Rapids.</p><br>
<p>First owned by Eldon resident Charles Dibble after its construction in 1881 and 1882, the home was (with one 1897 exception) a private residence until the late twentieth century. After a thirty-year preservation effort culminated with the donation of the house in 1991 to the State Historical Society of Iowa, the site now includes the original house in its 1930 form and a visitors center. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. Since 1991, various caretaker-occupants have continued to rent the home privately.</p><br>
<h2>Early history and architecture</h2><br>
<p>Charles A. Dibble (born 1836 in Saratoga County, New York), by various accounts a railroad man, livery stable owner, and Civil War veteran, lived in Eldon in the late nineteenth century. He and his wife, Catharine, began building the house in 1881 for themselves and their eight children. Its relatively simple board-and-batten siding, white color, and moderate size—just 504 ft&sup2;—were quite common in nineteenth century Iowa architecture. A similar style can be observed in the birthplace of President Herbert Hoover in West Branch, built a decade before the American Gothic House, which features board-and-batten siding, a simple shingled roof, a central chimney, white color, and a moderate size as well. Exterior features of the house include its two Gothic windows in the gable and its steep-pitched roof. Both features would later be exaggerated by Grant Wood in American Gothic. The lower floor of the house contains three rooms and a bathroom, while the upper floor has two bedrooms. The house has been called the best-known example of a Carpenter Gothic cottage in the United States.</p><br>
<p>There is no conclusive evidence explaining why the Dibbles chose to place Gothic windows on the upper level. The windows are believed to have been purchased through the Sears catalog. There are two commonly accepted theories: the Dibbles may have wanted the windows to beautify their home at a time when rural life in Iowa was a struggle, or they could have been following a trend in which extravagant details were desirable in residences in the late nineteenth century, and the Dibbles chose windows whose costs would have been relatively reasonable at the time.</p><br>
<p>The Dibbles&#39; house was foreclosed around 1897 after they were unable to pay their taxes, and they are recorded as living in Portland, Oregon, in the 1900 Census. The house changed hands several times until 1917, when Gideon and Mary Hart Jones purchased it. The Jones family owned the house until 1933 (and notably added a kitchen which created the west wing of the house); thus, it was the Jones family who allowed Grant Wood to use their home as a backdrop for American Gothic.</p><br>
<h2>American Gothic</h2><br>
<p>During the summer of 1930, Edward Rowan, a young gallery director from Cedar Rapids, a large city approximately 80 mi to the northeast of Eldon, attempted to promote fine arts in the rural town by opening a gallery and library and leading art classes in Eldon. Rowan&#39;s attempts were met with success—the Eldon Forum called the exhibitions "an unusual treat." This, along with an indebtedness Wood felt toward Rowan, drew the painter (himself a native of Anamosa, Iowa) to come to Eldon.</p><br>
<p>In August, Wood was driven around the town by a young painter from Eldon, John Sharp, looking for inspiration. Sharp&#39;s brother suggested in 1973 that it was on this drive that Wood first sketched the house on the back of an envelope. Wood did not immediately regard the house as beautiful, but he did find it captivating. His earliest biographer, Darrell Garwood, noted that Wood "thought it a form of borrowed pretentiousness, a structural absurdity, to put a Gothic-style window in such a flimsy frame house." At the time, Wood classified it as one of the "cardboardy frame houses on Iowa farms" and considered it "very paintable."</p><br>
<p>Although Wood never returned to Eldon, he did request a photograph of the home to complete his painting.</p><br>
<h2>Later history and current status</h2><br>
<p>Decades after American Gothic was regarded as an American icon, the house continued to serve as a private residence, usually for rent, transferring ownership only once more from the Jones family to the Seldon Smith family at a "distress sale" in 1942. A grassroots movement to preserve the house was started as early as 1945 by Nan Wood, Grant Wood&#39;s sister and the female figure depicted in American Gothic. A visit in 1960 to the house (which was beginning to fall into disrepair) by Des Moines architect and historian William J. Wagner, A.I.A. capped these early efforts. He was among the first to suggest preservation of the house as a historic site:</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, a series of letters between Eldon businessmen and Carl E. Smith—who has recently inherited the house—revealed differing opinions on its continued use: Smith wanted to renovate the house and protect it from vandalism only; the Eldon leaders were more in favor of making the house an historic site. The house was abandoned for much of the 1970s—a bullet was fired in an upstairs bedroom; weather and vandalism took their toll as well. Only in the late 1980s did the owner of the property consider turning the house over to the state. Indeed, many southern Iowans were conflicted on the issue—the owner wanted to keep the house only because he believed the current renters would have nowhere else to go if they were forced to leave.</p><br>
<p>After the home was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 (the result of an application by an Eldon farmer), the owner refurbished the house, installing an indoor bathroom and electricity and restoring the windows and wallpaper. After the house&#39;s owner eventually turned over the property to the State Historical Society of Iowa in 1991, an effort was made to move the house to Living History Farms outside Des Moines, but Eldonians fought to keep it within their city limits. The house was renovated in 1992, with boosters hoping to see the house become a pop-culture tourism attraction, much like the Field of Dreams site in similarly rural Dyersville. Today the American Gothic House Center hosts approximately 15,000 visitors per year, which does not account for additional after-hours visitors.</p><br>
<p>Visitors are encouraged to view the house from the outside and have their photo taken—in fact, the visitors center provides many sizes of similar aprons and jackets worn by the original painting&#39;s models. The adjacent American Gothic House Center, completed in 2007, contains exhibits about the painting, artist Grant Wood, and the community around the house. Each June, the city of Eldon holds its Gothic Days festival, a celebration of the painting and rural life in Eldon in the 1930s. Starting in 2015, tours began of the first floor of the home.</p><br>
<p>The Martin County Courthouse is the county courthouse for Martin County, Minnesota. The building is located at 201 Lake Avenue on the western side of the city of Fairmont, on a hill overlooking Lake Sisseton. It is a Beaux Arts building featuring a high copper dome with four clock faces. The first floor was made out of Michigan sandstone. The second and third stories are built of Bedford limestone. The arched entrance is flanked by polished double Corinthian order columns and topped by a pediment.</p><br>
<p>The building is connected to the brick and concrete Martin County Security Building by skyway on second level, and by tunnel below ground, at basement level. The security building provides space for police and detention, and was designed by 1972.</p><br>
<p>The building is 79 ft by 116 ft and rises 50 ft to the top of the roof, then 58 ft to the top of the dome.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was designed by Charles E. Bell and built by J. B. Nelson for $125,000 during 1906-1907. Interior murals of figures representing Peace, War, Inspiration, Genius, Sentence, and The Execution were painted by Franz E. Rohrbeck of Milwaukee. Interior finishing includes marble countertops, metalwork, and stained glass.</p><br>
<p>Renovation of the building began in late 2020, with the aim of replacing the leaking copper roof, as well as restoring the clockworks inside of the tower.</p><br>
<p>The Red Lake County Courthouse, located at 124 Langevin Avenue Red Lake Falls, Red Lake County in the USA state of Minnesota is a red brick Beaux Arts building featuring a small dome at each corner. Originally the building also had a large central dome, but it was removed in the 1940s. The courthouse was completed in 1911 at a cost of $37,070. The building was designed by Fremont D. Orff and James Brady. The front entrance of the courthouse is flanked by faux columns, topped by a classic pediment. The interior atrium is open to a two-story rotunda with arched openings to the second-level walkway.</p><br>
<p>The Rice County Courthouse, located at 218 3rd Street NW in Faribault, Rice County, in the USA state of Minnesota, is an Art Deco building constructed of natural-face Faribault stone horizontally banded at intervals with sawed-faced stone. Nairne W. Fisher of St. Cloud was the architect for the courthouse, and is also credited with designing the The main rotunda has metal fixtures and Art Deco glass. Polished black and gray Tennessee marble is used extensively in the walls, floors, and stairs, with a terrazzo map of Rice County centered on the floor. The 16 ft courtroom on the third floor was finished with fine-grained walnut walls with matching custom-built furnishings. The building was built in 1934 at a cost of $200,000.</p><br>
<p>A guidebook to Minnesota architecture described the courthouse building as "A near-perfect mixture of the classical and the Zigzag Moderne. Relief sculpture on the sides of the building along 4th and 3rd Streets extols civic virtue, industry and farming. Within, a central rotunda is approached by a Zigzag Moderne staircase; Moderne metal and glass light fixtures abound."</p><br>
<p>The brick jail building, located at 128 3rd Street NW in Faribault, was constructed in 1910 in the Richardsonian Romanesque style, and was designed by Albert Schippel of Mankato, Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>The Senator Walter Lowrie Shaw House is an historic home located in downtown Butler, Butler County, Pennsylvania, United States. Considered the last of its kind in the city of Butler, it is known in the area for being the home of Butler&#39;s only United States Senator, Walter Lowrie.</p><br>
<p>Situated behind the Butler County Courthouse, it houses the Butler County Historical Society&#39;s office, and is maintained as a museum by the Society.</p><br>
<h2>History and architectural features</h2><br>
<p>The last house of its kind in the city of Butler, it was built in 1828, and is situated behind the Butler County Courthouse.</p><br>
<p>It is a two-and-one-half-story, brick dwelling on a cut stone foundation, and has a slate covered gable roof. The front section measures forty-eight feet by thirty-eight feet and has a two-story, shed-roofed rear wing.</p><br>
<p>A front porch was added between 1870 and 1880.</p><br>
<h3>Present day</h3><br>
<p>The house is currently home to the Butler County Historical Society&#39;s office, and is maintained as a museum by the Society.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<p>The Sawyer Farmhouse is the residence of the family of the same name, on Maple Avenue in the Town of Goshen, New York, United States, at the edge of the Black Dirt Region. It was built about 1780, and is a two-story, five-bay, Federal style frame dwelling updated about 1860 in a picturesque Italianate style. An initial addition was built about 1810, and a one-story rear addition was added about 1890.</p><br>
<p>Note: This includes</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<p>The Hotel Kirkwood, also known as the Kirkwood Civic Center Hotel, is a historic building located in downtown Des Moines, Iowa, United States. The building was designed by the Chicago architectural firm of H.L. Stevens & Company and built in 1930. With its completion it became the largest hotel along Fourth Street between Walnut Street and Court Avenue, along Des Moines "Hotel Row." It also marked the emergence of the skyscraper hotel in the downtown Des Moines. The new hotel replaced a previous Hotel Kirkwood, built on the same site in 1862. It was located near Union Station and the Rock Island Depot. Developers and owners of the 1930 Hotel Kirkwood were E.F. Tagney and S.F. McGinn. Art Deco details are found in the buildings massing, the sleek exterior geometrical detailing, and treatment of the cornice. The 12-story brick structure rises to a height of 133 ft. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. The building has subsequently been converted into an apartment building called "The Kirkwood."</p><br>
<p>During its brief time of service, the Industrial Workers of the World met here, also holding meetings in Butte&#39;s Finlander Hall.</p><br>
<p>Today a sporting goods shop occupies the first floor of the former Socialist Hall. The building is physically outside the boundaries of the Butte-Anaconda-Walkerville National Historic Landmark District, but is included with it for documentation.</p><br>
<p>The Socialist Hall building is a two-story building which "is an excellent example of craftsmanship and design in a two-part commercial block style building." It faces east onto Harrison Avenue with a chocolate colored and beige brick facade. When nominated, it had about fifty masonry anchor bolts stabilizing the front facade.</p><br>
<p>The Cole–Hasbrouck Farm Historic District is a historic home and farm and national historic district located along NY 32 north of the junction with US 44 and NY 55 at Modena, Ulster County, New York, US. The district encompasses 21 contributing buildings, 4 contributing sites, and 5 contributing structures on a farm established in the 1820s. The main house was built about 1820, and is a two-story, five-bay, brick-and-stone dwelling with a side-gable roof. It has a two-story rear frame ell that subsumes and earlier -story kitchen ell. Other contributing resources are related to the house landscape and dependencies, the farm complex, and a hamlet that grew in the 1850s at the crossroads. Note: This includes</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1994.</p><br>
